Middle East Timeline
Source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/timeline/index.html for MS Word 2000 version, with Document
Map e-mail mgmaness@earthlink.net
In the Islamic faith, Muhammad is considered the last in a
long line of prophets of Allah (God).
The Quran, Islam's holy book, is said to have been revealed to Muhammad
by the angel Gabriel. The Hijra marks
the beginning of the growth of Islam into a world faith. The Muslim calendar counts dates from the
Hijra, which is why Muslim dates have the suffix A.H. (After Hijra). Related Links
Muslims have ruled Jerusalem
since 638, but Christians are permitted to visit the city on pilgrimage. By the 11th century, however, the Seljuk
Turks, now in control of Jerusalem, begin to prevent such pilgrimages. To reclaim Jerusalem from the Muslims, Pope
Urban II helps launch the first of what will ultimately be seven military
assaults that run through the 13th century.
The Crusaders eventually capture Jerusalem in 1099, but overall fail in
their quest: The Crusades do not result
in any permanent conquests in the Middle East, nor do they did not slow the
spread of Islam. Another part of their
legacy: The Crusades bear tremendous
responsibility for the intolerance that develops between Christians and Muslims
as well as Jews and followers of eastern Christian churches, who also fell
victim to the Crusades.
The Ottoman Empire begins in
the 1300s in what is now Turkey.
Between 1516 and 1517, the Ottomans conquer the Arab provinces. Islam is one of the major forces holding the
diverse empire together. Ottoman law,
in fact, is derived from both Islamic law and edicts of the sultan. In the 1700s and 1800s, though, the
once-powerful Ottoman Empire starts to lose power. On the hunt for new territories to conquer, Great Britain,
France, and Russia begin to interfere in the affairs and territories of the
Ottoman Empire as well as in Egypt. The
Ottomans retain control over the Balkans until the early 1900s, and over most
of the Arab world until 1918. On the
losing side of World War I, their lands are dispersed to Allied powers,
including Great Britain and France.
Napoleon, one of the greatest
military commanders in history, wants to destroy British trade with the Middle
East. After landing in Egypt with
35,000 troops, he quickly captures Alexandria.
He then leads his soldiers across the desert, and Cairo falls to him as
well. After fighting the Turks in Syria,
Napoleon leaves his troops in Egypt to return to France.
Algeria is France's first
colony in North Africa. With it, France
begins a policy of assimilation aimed at making the colonists into model French
citizens, with little regard for their native culture and history.
Aisha Taymur participates in
the struggle for the emancipation of women in the early 20th century. She is one of the leading figures of an Arab
intellectual and cultural awakening.
In 1853, Britain and the Arab
sheikhdoms of the Persian Gulf sign the Perpetual Maritime Truce, in which the
Arabs agree to recognize Britain as the dominant power in the Gulf. Though it never assumes sovereignty over
them, Britain controls the foreign affairs of these emirates and maintains
responsibility for their protection.
The Trucial States, as they were called, will later join together to
make up the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
This first wave of immigration
from the Middle East to the U.S. is led
by Christian Arabs, mostly from Syrian and Lebanese provinces of the Ottoman
Empire. Increasingly frequent
skirmishes between Muslims and Christians living there, the worst of which is a
massacre of several thousand Christians in Damascus, Syria, prompt this
exodus. Between 1860 and 1920, several
hundred families a year -- then several thousand a year -- leave the region.
Warda al-Yaziji's collection of
poetry, called The Rose Garden in English, speaks to a female presence
within a broader, Arab identity.
Al-Yaziji also has also published several articles about the status of
Arab women.
Designed to give European
powers better access to Middle Eastern, East Asian, and South Asian markets,
the Suez Canal is built by France (using Egyptian workers) over 10 years. The French later sell the Canal to the
British, who control it for 84 years before Egypt nationalizes it. It is wide enough to accommodate most ships
and, at 120 miles long, is the longest canal in the world without locks.
Tunisia will not regain
independence until the 1950s.
With the czarist government
under threat from rioting revolutionaries, Alexander III issues a new policy
against the Jews, whom he insists are responsible for the riots. The May Laws state that Jews are forbidden
to settle outside the towns and shtetls (townlets); deeds of sale and lease of real estate in the name of Jews
outside the towns and shtetls are canceled;
and Jews are prohibited from trading on Sundays and Christian
holidays. Where Alexander II's policies
towards Jews had been liberal, Alexander III's lead to their systematic
expulsion from towns and villages where they had lived for almost a century. Though the pogroms stop, the threat of riots
is kept alive by an anti-Semitic press.
By 1914 almost two and a half million Jews will flee Russia.
After Egyptian nationalist
supporters rebel against Egypt's British-backed government, British troops
attack and occupy Alexandria before defeating opposition forces. Britain is primarily interested in
protecting its investment in the Suez Canal, a crucial communication and
transportation link to British colonies in India.
The first Arabic-language
newspaper published in the U.S., Kawkab Amrika (Star of America), gets
its start in 1892. By 1919,
Arabic-speaking immigrants are served by nine such newspapers. The most significant publication of the late
19th and early 20th centuries, though, is the journal Syrian World,
which publishes notable writers such as Khalil Gibran and showcases a range of
works, including poems, plays, articles, and stories. While Gibran's name may be the most familiar to American readers,
Ameen Rihani is widely considered to be the "father of Arab American
literature."
After covering the Dreyfus
Affair, a trial of a Jewish officer in the French army who was wrongfully
accused as a traitor, Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist from Vienna, publishes
a pamphlet called "The Jewish State." Disturbed by the wave of
anti-Semitism set off by the trial, Herzl calls for a state in which Jews can
live without fear of persecution. He
travels the world over to find monetary and political support for his vision.
The Zionist Organization is
founded at the First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, with the goal of
working towards the establishment of a secure home for the Jewish people in
Palestine. In 1960, the group changes
its name to the World Zionist Organization.
In his book The Liberation
of Women, written and published at the end of the 19th century, Egyptian
lawyer Qasim Amin argues that the emancipation of women is a necessary step in
freeing Egypt from foreign domination.
He also uses portions of the Quran to support his argument. The book, controversial upon its
publication, continues to be so today, more than 100 years later.
Under the guidance of Theodor
Herzl, the Jewish National Fund (JNF) is established to purchase land in
Palestine. The JNF makes its first
purchase in 1903, and at the 1948 declaration of the State of Israel, Jews will
own nearly 7 percent of the whole country.
The original Aswan Dam, or
Aswan Low Dam, is built by the British.
In 1970, it will be determined that the Aswan Low Dam is neither large
enough nor strong enough to control extreme flooding, and a second High dam
will be built.
Wahhabi leader Abd al-Aziz ibn
Saud is the founder of Saudi Arabia and its first king. He spends his youth, along with his family,
the Saud family -- leaders of the ultraorthodox Wahhabi movement in Islam -- in
exile. In 1902 Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud and
a small group of relatives and servants recapture Riyadh (now Saudi Arabia's
country's capital and major city) and reclaim power for his family. Over the next 30 years, ibn Saud will lead a
campaign to unify, under his rule, the many warring tribes who live on the
Arabian Peninsula. This unification
lays the foundations for the modern state of Saudi Arabia, which is officially
recognized on September 23, 1932. Many people
in the Arabian Peninsula practice a revivalist form of Islam called Wahhabi
Islam, after its founder, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. It is sometimes unfairly characterized as "extremist"
in today's media and society.
At the Sixth Zionist Congress
two years earlier, delegates had agreed to consider the establishment of a
Jewish settlement in East Africa. But
after considering a site in Uganda (now Kenya), attendees at the Seventh
Congress (held in Basel, Switzerland), conclude that an East African site would
be inappropriate for a mass Jewish settlement.
In 1918, the Violet Line, as it
is known, is a boundary drawn to separate the Ottoman and British spheres of
influence in Yemen and to prevent future clashes. It is literally drawn on a map with a ruler, using violet
ink. This line will later form the
border between Northern and Southern Yemen when these lands gain statehood in
the 1960s. The two divisions are united
in 1990.
The Aga Khan, a hereditary
spiritual leader, is elected president of the All-India Muslim League. He will hold the position until his
resignation in 1912. The League is
founded to protect the political rights of Muslims living in India.
Muzaffar al-Din Shah signs
Persia's first constitution. The
Constitutional Revolution aims to make the state leader accountable to a
written code of law, thereby limiting royal power and lessening government
corruption. The constitution also calls
for the establishment of the Majlis, or elected parliament.
The city unearthed by the
excavations near Angora (now Ankara), Turkey, is the ancient Hittite city
Hattusas, the capital of the Hittite Empire during the second millennium B.C.E. Though the Hittites inhabit Anatolia (the
Asian part of what is now called Turkey), they are not the first Turks. The first Turks, nomadic tribes who bring
Islam from Persia, will not settle in Anatolia until about 1030 C.E.
Muzaffar al-Din Shah, who had
become Shah after his father's death by assassination in 1896, dies in
1907. His son, Mohammed Ali Shah,
succeeds him. Like his father, he is considered
a weak leader, and after two years he is deposed and replaced on the throne by
his son, 12-year-old Sultan Ahmed Shah, and a regency.
Nabawiya Moussa is the first
Egyptian girl to earn a baccalaureate degree and finish her high school
education. Twenty-one years will pass
before another Egyptian girl earns this degree. Throughout her life, Moussa is a pioneering figure in women's
education, teaching, writing, and speaking about its importance.
The Tunisian Antiquities
Service finds bronze Greek statues from a ship believed to have sunk en route
from Greece to Italy around 100 B.C.E.
To protect their economic
interests in the region, Russia and Great Britain divide Persia into three
zones. Russia controls the northern
zone, Great Britain the southern zone, and the Shah of Iran controls the
neutral middle zone.
British adventurer William Knox
D'Arcy strikes oil in 1908, seven years after obtaining drilling rights to the
land from the Persian government. In
1909, D'Arcy joins with Burmah Oil to form the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in
1909. By 1917, the British government,
which owns 51 percent of the company, is the most influential power in
Persia. Britain uses the company's
reserves during World War I.
Concerned with the continuing
centralization of power under Sultan Abdul Hamit and convinced that the growing
economic influence of foreign powers will end the Ottoman Empire, the
predominantly upper-class Young Turk movement takes action. The revolution, largely organized from
France by the movement's exiled leaders, is proclaimed on July 6. The Young Turks manage to convince the
troops sent to oppose any revolutionaries to refuse their orders. On July 21, the party sends a telegraph to
the sultan demanding the immediate restoration and implementation of the
constitution of 1876 and the restoration of a parliamentary form of government,
threatening him with dethronement should he not comply. On July 24, the sultan announces that the
old constitution is again in effect.
The establishment of a
university in Cairo had been opposed by the British occupation authorities, who
fear that the creation of an institution that produces well-educated citizens
might lead to calls for independence.
A group of Jews intent on
founding an alternative city to the crowded, predominantly Arab port city of
Jaffa buy uninhabited sand dunes to the north and create a garden suburb. They name it Tel Aviv, which translates to
"Hill of Spring." Tel Aviv becomes the first modern Jewish city, with
a population of 35,000 by 1921 and 200,000 by 1948.
Starting in 1904, Yahya bin
Muhammad, an imam, or religious leader, has been leading Yemeni tribes opposed
to Ottoman occupation. In 1911, he, and
not the centralized Ottoman government, is recognized as the ruling power of
the Northern Yemen highland people.
Sheikh Qassim bin Muhammad
al-Thani dies 35 years after founding the Emirate of Qatar. His son, Sheikh Abdullah, formally assumes
leadership.
The Ottomans side with Germany
against Allied forces.
The Young Turk government, the
final Ottoman regime, massacres more than 1.5 million ethnic Armenians, a
Christian minority within the empire.
The killings are condemned by the world's major powers of the time --
even by their German and Austrian allies in World War I. Today, the Turkish government denies that
there was an Armenian genocide, saying instead that Armenians were only
relocated from the eastern war zone.
Two waterways -- the
Dardanelles and Bosporus Straits -- provided the only passage between the Black
Sea and the Mediterranean Sea; thus,
this was the only supply route between France and Britain and their ally
Russia. The Allied forces wanted to
wrest control of these waterways from Ottoman strongholds along the Gallipoli
Peninsula, and committed nearly a half million troops in their attempt to do
so. Naval and air strikes were followed
by troop landings and ground combat at close range. The standoff was epic, and the number of casualties on both sides
high. Ultimately, the Turkish forces
repelled the Allied attack. With so
many Allied troops committed to the unsuccessful campaign at Gallipoli, Germany
was able to more easily pursue its military objectives on the eastern front,
and World War I continued another two years.
The courage shown by the Turkish forces in defending their positions, as
well as the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, served as great examples for their War
of Liberation, which followed in 1920.
While the Ottoman Empire enters
the war on Germany's side, the Arabs (led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca) agree to
side with the Allies (Britain, France, and Russia). They do so because of an agreement known as the Hussein-McMahon
Correspondence in which Britain promises independence to what is now Syria,
Palestine (Israel), Jordan, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula should the Allies
win the war. Unbeknownst to the Arabs,
however, Britain also signs the Sykes-Picot Agreement with France later in
1916. This pact, which directly
contradicts Hussein-McMahon, details a plan to split up most of the Middle East
region between Britain and France should they defeat the Axis powers. Britain makes a third conflicting agreement,
the Balfour Declaration. After ousting
the Ottomans from both Jerusalem and Baghdad, they promise to support the
establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine.
A secret understanding
negotiated during World War I between Great Britain and France (with Russian
consent), the Sykes-Picot agreement outlines the division of Ottoman-controlled
lands into various French- and British-administered areas. The agreement is named after its
negotiators, Sir Mark Sykes of Britain and Georges Picot of France. The agreement, implemented in 1919, contradicts
the agreement the British made with the Arabs at the start of the war (the
Hussein-McMahon Correspondence), which promised the Arabs independence of what
is now Syria, Palestine (Israel), Jordan, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.
Since the late 1800s, Zionists
had wanted a Jewish state to be created in Palestine, part of the Jews' holy
land. Though the wording of the Balfour
Declaration is vague, it implies that Great Britain will support the Zionists
in establishing such a state. "His
Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a
national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to
facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that
nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of
existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political
status enjoyed by Jews in any other country." The Arabs perceive the
Balfour Declaration as an act of British dishonesty. They believe the British had promised them to help with the
establishment of a united Arab country reaching from the Red Sea to the Persian
Gulf in return for their support during World War I.
Saad Zaghlul leads a delegation
to meet with the ruling British High Commissioner and demand independence for
Egypt. He is refused, and his
subsequent arrest and deportation spark anti-British riots. The growing popular support of the
nationalistic Wafd Party -- "wafd" is Arabic for
"delegation" -- prompts Britain to grant Egypt limited independence
in February 1922 and install a king as head of state. Britain, which has served as Egypt's protectorate since 1914,
retains control over essential government institutions, including the
parliament; finances; education;
and the Sudan. It also keeps
troops in the Suez Canal zone. Egypt
will gain full independence after World War II.
As much as a quarter of the
population living in the north of Iran dies in a famine. The devastating effect of a world war and a
period of severe drought and widespread crop failure are the primary
contributing factors to the famine.
When Afghan King Emir
Habibullah Khan is murdered in February near Jalalabad, his son, Amanullah
Khan, seizes power, proclaims Afghanistan a sovereign and independent nation,
and attacks British troops in India.
The Third Anglo-Afghan War lasts just one month. Britain agrees to an armistice and
recognizes Afghan independence.
Afghanistan's first
constitution (1923) guarantees civil rights and creates a legislature and court
system to enforce the new laws.
Amanullah privatizes land, abolishes slavery, and improves educational
opportunities for boys and girls. He
also seeks to Westernize Afghan culture, overturning centuries-old
customs. Conservative tribal and
religious leaders resist these changes, however, and call for new leadership.
The Mother Mosque, the first
built in America, will serve the Muslim population of Cedar Rapids for 40 years
before a second is built. The Iowa city
is also home to the first burial ground exclusively for Muslims in the U.S.
Iraqi women seek to be
recognized as full citizens and want freedom from having to wear a veil in
public, as per Islamic tradition. Aswa
Zahawi founds the Women's Rising Group, which begins to publish Leila, a
journal promoting education and employment rights for women.
At the post-World War I San
Remo Conference in Italy, former Ottoman-controlled territories are allotted as
"mandates" among the victorious Allies. Established as part of the Treaty of Versailles, the mandate system
entrusts Britain and France with the task of governing the territories until it
is determined that they are ready for independence. Syria and Lebanon are assigned to France, Palestine and Iraq to
Britain. Transjordan is created from
the Palestine Mandate in 1921.
Riots break out in what becomes
known as the Great Iraqi Revolution.
Iraq is placed under British mandate.
As part of the armistice ending
World War I, the sultan signs the Sevres Treaty, promising to give land to
Greece and Armenia. Mustafa Kemal, a
former Ottoman army officer and president of the recently formed Grand National
Assembly, denounces the sultan's decision and leads an army to recapture and
hold this territory as a Turkish state.
This resistance becomes known as the War of Liberation.
A temporary government is
established in Iraq, to be assisted by British advisors. Britain had promised Arab independence in
exchange for their support in World War I, so this was a repayment. Popular support lies with Prince Faisal, who
becomes king in 1921. Iraq remains a
British mandate until 1932.
Rudolph Valentino plays the
title character in The Sheik, a film which promotes stereotypes and
distorts Arab culture.
A holy place from the ancient
Punic period in Carthage is discovered in Tunisia in 1921. Carthage, originally built in 814
B.C.E. as a colony of the Phoenician
Empire (1200-330 B.C.E.), was completely destroyed by fire by the Romans.
Reza Khan, a Persian army
officer, deposes the Qajar dynasty that had taken control of the country. He appoints himself Shah in 1925 and seeks
to free Iran from foreign influence;
his reign will last until 1941.
To achieve his ends, he resists the strict laws and archaic customs of
the religious mullahs and reduces the influence of the nobles and sheikhs who
rule nomadic tribes. He renames the
country Iran in 1935.
Following the disintegration of
the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the territories formerly under the
empire's control are divided between France and Britain. In 1920, the principal Allied powers award
Britain the mandate for Palestine. Two
years later, the League of Nations confirms the mandate, which lays out the
terms under which Britain is given responsibility for the temporary
administration of Palestine on behalf of both the Jews and Arabs living
there. According to the mandate,
Britain "shall be responsible for placing the country [Palestine] under
such political, administrative, and economic conditions as will secure the
establishment of the Jewish national home ...
and also for safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the
inhabitants of Palestine, irrespective of race or religion." (from the
Balfour Declaration)
The Grand National Assembly,
led by Mustafa Kemal, hero of the War of Liberation, abolishes the office of
the sultanate, thereby ending 631 years of rule by the Ottoman Empire.
British archaeologist Howard
Carter discovers the undisturbed tomb of "King Tut" in Egypt's Valley
of the Kings after a decade-long search.
Known as the "Boy King," Tutankhamun became Pharaoh at the age
of 10. He ruled Egypt more than 3,000
years ago.
Khalil Gibran, a writer and
artist (he studied with the French sculptor Rodin), is one of the most familiar
literary figures in the Arab American community. The Prophet has been translated into more than 20
languages.
In a daring act of defiance,
Huda Shaarawi, Ceza Nabarawi, and Nabawiya Moussa take off their hijab (veils)
at the Cairo train station to symbolize their liberation. They demand equality, the right to education
and the vote, and reform of the law that regulates marriage, divorce, child
custody, and alimony.
The first oil strike floods the
countryside with oil for 10 days before workers can bring it under
control. The well produces 80,000
barrels of oil a day. In 1934, the
first oil pipeline connects Iraq with Tripoli in Lebanon. A second line to Haifa, Palestine, opens in
January 1935.
Since the end of World War I,
the British have divided the land of Transjordan into three local
administrative districts, with a British "advisor" appointed to
each. Faced with the determination of
Emir Abdullah to unify Arab lands, the British proclaim him ruler of the three
districts, known collectively as Transjordan.
On May 15, 1923, Britain formally recognizes the Emirate of Transjordan
as a state under the leadership of Emir Abdullah. The treaty stipulates that Transjordan will be prepared for
independence under the general supervision of the British high commissioner in
Jerusalem.
Mustafa Kemal wins unanimous election
as the first president of Turkey.
Though nearly all of the population practices Islam, Kemal's government
assumes control of religious functions so that religion will not interfere in
the affairs of state. Under his
leadership, the country undergoes Western-style economic, social, and political
modernization. In the first wave of
reforms, Turkey abolishes the offices of its religious head of state (the
caliphate) and the courts (the sharia).
Separate educational and judicial systems are introduced. The country adopts Sunday as the official
weekend holiday (the traditional Muslim day of rest is Friday), as well as the
Western calendar.
The Technion-Israel Institute
of Technology is established in Haifa.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem follows in April, and the Weizmann
Institute of Science in 1946. In
addition to its advances in irrigation, agriculture, and the medical sciences,
Israel also leads research into solar power.
In 1926, Lebanon, now
semiautonomous, adopts a constitution that will remain in effect, albeit
frequently amended, until 1987. Lebanon
will gain full independence from France in 1943.
At the end of World War I, a
proposal is put forth to establish an independent Kurdish state, borrowing land
from the region that now comprises Iraq, Turkey, and Iran to do so. The failure to pursue that idea further
results in the Kurdish issue still in question in both Iraq and Turkey to the
present day.
The Turkish Civil Code is
adopted from Swiss Civil Code. The old
code and sharia (Islamic law), which had been the foundation of Ottoman
personal status law, are replaced. Women
gain important rights. Polygamy is
forbidden; marriages are to be
performed in accordance with civil code, not religious code; and a court decree is required for divorce.
The Ikhwan (translated as
"brethren") is a group of Muslims who practice Wahhabism, a puritan
form of Islam. Ibn Saud had recruited
the Ikhwan to help massacre his non-Wahhabi rivals and add Mecca and the Hejaz
region of central Arabia to his domain.
He loses his authority over the Ikhwan, however, when he chooses not to
battle rivals who hold protective treaties with Britain. In 1929, ibn Saud confronts the Ikhwan
militarily, and they are forced to surrender to the British in Kuwait in
January 1930. Not all of the Ikhwan
revolt, however, and those who remain loyal to ibn Saud continue to receive
government support and remain an influential religious force. They are eventually absorbed into the Saudi
Arabian National Guard.
Elementary school teacher Hasan
al-Banna founds the Muslim Brotherhood based on his ideas that Islam should not
only be a religious observance, but a comprehensive way of life. He supplements the traditional Islamic
education with jihadi training for the Society's male students. Over the next several decades, the
Brotherhood becomes increasingly involved in politics and is banned,
reinstated, and then banned again in 1954 by the Egyptian government for its
attempted assassination of Egyptian president Nasser. Nasser's successor, Anwar al-Sadat, once in office promises the
group that sharia (Islamic law) will be implemented as the Egyptian law and
releases all imprisoned Brothers, or members of the group. But in September 1981, he himself is
assassinated by four men in the Brotherhood after signing a peace treaty with
Israel. Hamas in Palestine and
mujahideen groups in Afghanistan are examples of violent factions that have
split off from the Muslim Brotherhood.
In adopting a new alphabet,
Arabic script is replaced with Latin letters.
The changes are consistent with other Westernizing social reforms
implemented under Atat¸rk. Many Arabic
and Persian words and phrases are removed from the language, replaced instead
with Turkish ones. These changes are
also designed to help combat illiteracy.
After a year of civil war,
Nadir Khan, Amanullah's former minister of war, is crowned King of
Afghanistan. King Nadir Shah's
reactionary measures undo Amanullah's reforms and reinstate customary Afghan
laws and practices.
In 1928, Arab Muslims and Jews
in Jerusalem begin to clash over their respective communal religious rights at
the Wailing Wall (known to Muslims as al-Buraq). Controversies about the site were inflamed by nationalists on both
sides and resulted in full-scale riots.
British troops were called in to restore order. The week-long riots leave 133 Jews dead and
339 wounded, almost all by Arabs. Arab
casualties include 116 dead and 232 wounded, most by British troops. Another result of the riots was the
termination of the ancient Jewish community Hebron and the Jewish community of
Beer-Sheva.
Reza Shah Pahlevi bans
traditional clothing (e.g., pantaloons and turbans for men, veils for women) in
favor of Western garb. Many people
choose to ignore the new law. Among
other reforms advocated by the Shah at this time include reinstating Persian
names for months, the solar calendar, and the history of pre-Islamic Iran to
emphasize Iranian identity.
Only 150,000 people, many of
them nomadic Bedouins, inhabit the land that will comprise the UAE. With no roads, schools, hospitals, or
factories, these people experience one of the lowest standards of living in the
developing world until oil is discovered in the region.
The world pearl market
collapses with the Japanese invention of cultured pearls, devastating the
already weak pre-oil economy of Qatar.
Although present-day Qatar enjoys a high standard of living, the
sparsely populated region was one of the poorest in the Arab world before the
discovery of oil, with an economy almost entirely reliant on the pearl
industry.
Jewish athletes from all over
the world go to Tel Aviv, Israel, to compete in an Olympic-style event also
known as the "Jewish Olympics." First held in 1932 and 1935, the
Maccabiah Games are suspended from 1938-50.
The Games resume in 1950, and have been held in Israel every four years
since.
Having reigned over much of
Arabia during the early part of the 1800s, the al-Saud family loses part of its
territory to the Turks in the latter half of the century and is driven from its
capital, Riyadh, by the rival House of Rashid.
In 1902, Abd al-Aziz recaptures the capital city and begins to reconquer
and reunify the country, which he completes some three decades later. In 1927, Abd al-Aziz is officially
proclaimed king, and five years later, the country is named the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.
As previously agreed, Britain
terminates its mandate to govern Iraq.
Britain maintains a strong presence in Iraq, however, so this
independence is limited. Iraq joins the
League of Nations and is officially recognized as a sovereign state ruled by a
monarch. Iraq receives full autonomy
after World War II, when British troops complete their withdrawal.
King Faisal is succeeded by his
21-year-old son, Ghazi, who rules from 1933 until his accidental death in
1939. A product of Western education,
Ghazi has little experience with the complexities of Iraqi tribal life. While Faisal had the prestige and ability to
draw politicians around the idea of national interest, Ghazi is unable to
balance competing nationalist and British pressures. As time passes, the nationalist movement begins to view the Ghazi
monarchy as little more than a British puppet.
Atat¸rk grants women full
voting rights, making Turkey the first Middle Eastern country to allow
this. Women had obtained the right to
vote in municipal elections in 1930.
Before the 20th century, the
Turks, like the Arabs, didn't use family names. Mustafa Kemal -- Kemal is actually the name his schoolteachers
gave him, meaning "perfect" -- officially adopts the surname "Atat¸rk,"
or "Father of the Turks." The honor is given by the Grand National
Assembly in appreciation for his having founded and shaped the new Turkish
Republic.
By 1936, the increase in Jewish
immigration and land acquisition, as well as general Arab frustration at the
continuation of European rule, mobilizes increasing numbers of Palestinian
Arabs. In April of that year, an Arab
attack on a Jewish bus leads to a series of incidents that escalate into a
major Palestinian rebellion. The revolt
lasts until 1939, when the British, in part to obtain Arab support for the
recently erupted war with Germany, ban most land sales to Jews.
Faruq, son of the deceased King
Fuad, ascends the Egyptian throne. The
Wafd Party initially supports the new king and his nationalistic leanings. Within a year, however, Faruq signs the
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty. Though it brings
Egypt closer to full independence, it allows British forces the right to remain
in the Suez Canal zone.
In response to the Arab Revolt
against British rule in Palestine, the Peel Commission hears testimony from
more than 130 Jews, Zionists, Palestinian Arabs, and other Arab nationalists
before issuing its report. The commission's
report, published in July 1937, calls for the partition of Palestine into a
Jewish state, an Arab state, and a British-controlled corridor from Jerusalem
to the coast at Jaffa. It also
recommends relocating people to deal with the delicate population balance
between Jews and Arabs in the proposed Jewish state. The partition plan was accepted as a pragmatically valid
principle for settling the Arab-Jewish dispute by the majority of the offical
leadership of the Zionist movement who urged further examination of the
Bristish proposals. The Arab side
rejected the compromise, with the exception of Abdullah of Transjordan.
When oil is discovered in Saudi
Arabia in 1938, the U.S. founds the
Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco).
By 1980, Saudi Arabia has gained full control over the company.
After Palestinian Arabs reject
the 1937 Peel Commission's partition plan (dividing Palestine into a Jewish
state and an Arab state), the British government assembles a team to devise a
new plan. (The Zionist Organization had
accepted the principle of partition.) The written report includes a statement
of policy rejecting partition as impracticable, but suggests that Arab-Jewish
agreement might still be possible.
In May 1939, Great Britain
publishes a White Paper, also known as the MacDonald White Paper (named for the
British colonial secretary), that marks the end of its commitment to the Jews
and a Jewish state under the Balfour Declaration. The White Paper calls for the establishment of a Palestinian
(Arab) state within 10 years. It limits
the number of Jews to be admitted to Palestine over the next five years to
75,000 and places severe restrictions on land purchases by Jews. The White Paper receives a mixed Arab reception,
and the Jewish Agency rejects it emphatically, calling it a total repudiation
of Balfour and mandate obligations.
David Ben-Gurion, then chairman of the Jewish Agency, declares, "We
shall fight the war against Hitler as if there were no White Paper, and we
shall fight the White Paper as if there were no war."
The outbreak of World War II
pits the Allied powers (Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Soviet Union,
and the U.S.) against the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan). After six years of fighting, the Allies win
the war.
Strong anti-British sentiment
and an increasingly powerful urban nationalist movement come together to spark
Prime Minister Ali's 1941 coup attempt.
The coup is ultimately unsuccessful in ousting the monarchy, but the
landing of British forces completely divorces Iraq's monarchy from the
nationalist group.
Iran declares its neutrality at
the start of World War II, but Britain is upset at Iran's refusal of Allied
demands to expel all German nationals from the country. (Germany had been Iran's largest trading
partner prior to the war.) After Hitler's 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union,
the Allies desperately need to create a transportation route across Iran and
into the Soviet Union, and on August 26, Britain and the Soviet Union simultaneously
invade Iran. On September 16, with the
collapse of the resistance, Reza Shah Pahlevi abdicates the throne to his son,
Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi. Exiled to
Mauritius and then to Johannesburg, South Africa, Reza Shah dies in July
1944.
King Faruq's appointment of
Mustafa al-Nahhas to head the Egyptian government virtually destroys Faruq's
authority inside his country. Despite
the fact he takes this action under the pressure of British tanks laying siege
to his palace, many nationalists view Faruq as corrupt and ineffective.
The National Pact, an oral agreement
between President Bishara al-Khouri and Prime Minister Riad al-Sulh, devises a
formula for the distribution of seats in parliament according to population
figures derived from the 1932 census.
Six seats are reserved for all Christian sects, and five for all Muslim
sects.
France ends the colonial
administration it has held over Lebanon since the end of World War I. Though Lebanon's independence is proclaimed
on November 26, 1941, full independence is realized in stages. France transfers most of its governing
powers to the Lebanese government on January 1, 1944, and completes troop
evacuation in 1946.
This loose affiliation of
states favors unity among the Arab people and opposes the establishment of a
Jewish state in Palestine. The charter
is signed in Cairo.
Held in 1950, Turkey's first
elections see the Republican People's Party (Atat¸rk's old party) lose out to
the right-wing Democratic Party. After
10 years of majority rule characterized by abuses of power, however, the armed
forces stage a coup, and the Democratic Party is banned.
Soviet troops, originally
positioned in northern Iran in 1942 to prevent a possible German move and to
protect Iranian oil, intentionally ignore an agreement that calls for the
removal of all occupying forces by 1943.
They stall as they debate whether they can carve out of the oil-rich
northern Iranian province of Azerbaijan an autonomous entity that would be
subject to their control. The Soviets
ultimately leave after the U.S.
threatens military action. The
incident contributes to the start of the Cold War.
The KDP's primary goal is
autonomy in northern Iraq. The
organization is founded by Mustafa Barzani.
Charles de Gaulle promises
Syria independence, but the transition is filled with strife. France demands that its cultural, economic,
and strategic interests be protected by treaty before agreeing to withdraw its
troops. In May 1945, demonstrations
take place in Damascus and Aleppo; the
French respond by bombing the capital.
Fighting breaks out in other cities as well. Only after Britain's prime minister, Winston Churchill, threatens
to send troops to Damascus does de Gaulle order a cease-fire. A UN resolution in February 1946 calls on
France to evacuate. The French accede,
and by April 15, 1946, all French troops have left Syria.
MESCO is established in Cairo
as part of UNESCO. Like UNESCO, its
goal is to resuscitate international and regional scientific research and
policy after World War II. Its specific
goals are tailored to regional needs such as water conservation and the
development of arable land.
After World War II, a showdown
is looming between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. Despite their numerical superiority (1.3 million Arabs to 650,000
Jews), the Arabs are less prepared for conflict than the Jews, who have a
government under David Ben-Gurion and an army.
The Palestinian Arabs are still in disarray from the Arab Revolt, and
most of their leaders have been exiled.
By 1947, mounting violence, including terrorist acts by both Arabs and
Jews, leads Britain to declare its mandate over Palestine unworkable. Britain makes plans for its withdrawal and
leaves the question of what to do with Palestine to the UN. In August, the United Nations Special
Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) recommends the creation of independent Jewish
and Arab states. The plan divides
Palestine into roughly equal halves, with Jerusalem and religiously significant
surrounding sites under the control of a separate international authority. The report also calls for the Arab and
Jewish states to form a united economic bloc.
The Jews accept this plan, but the Palestinian Arabs do not. The partition plan is approved by majority
vote of the UN General Assembly on November 29. Britain completes its withdrawal from Palestine in early May
1948, and on May 14, the State of Israel is declared, with David Ben-Gurion as
its first prime minister. Both the
United States and the USSR immediately recognize the new state. In support of the Palestinian Arabs, however,
neighboring Arab nations -- Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, and Syria -- declare
war on Israel the next day. The
Israelis repel the Arab attack. The
1948 War, also known as the Israeli War of Independence, ends in July 1949. Israel signs separate cease-fire agreements
with Transjordan, Syria, and Egypt and now controls about 70 percent of what
had been Mandatory Palestine. Egypt
holds the Gaza Strip, Jordan annexes the West Bank, and Syria retains the Golan
Heights.
Oil is produced and exported
for the first time, 10 years after its initial discovery. Offshore oil production begins in 1964.
Though the U.S. still favored keeping Jerusalem an
international zone as per the 1947 UN partition plan, Israel proclaims
Jerusalem its capital. East Jerusalem,
which includes the old city, will remain under Jordan's control until June
1967.
After Prime Minister Ali
Razmara advises against nationalizing the oil industry on technical grounds, he
is assassinated by Khalil Tahmasebi, a member of the terrorist group of the
Fadayan-e Islam. Related Links
Before being appointed prime
minister, Mossadeq served as a minister and governor in the 1920s. His opposition to the accession of Reza Shah
results in imprisonment and later house arrest. Mossadeq returns to parliament in 1941 after Reza Shah is removed
from power and replaced by his son, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi. Related Links
To prevent foreign interests
from controlling the Iranian economy, Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadeq
nationalizes the oil industry. This
move meets with tremendous resistance, especially from the British, who own substantial
oil interests. Mossadeq becomes a
national hero to many Iranians and gains international prestige -- Time
magazine names him Man of the Year for 1951. Related Links
Libya gains independence on
December 24, 1951. Setting the stage
for independence was a 1949 United Nations resolution stating that Libya should
become independent before January 1, 1952.
The first country to gain independence through a UN resolution, Libya
had been an Italian colony from the early 1900s through World War II and was
then under French and British control in the postwar period (1945-1951). Related Links
Turkey celebrates its acceptance
into NATO. With it, the country gains
protection from any Soviet aggression.
It is also more likely to receive foreign aid to assist with
modernization. Many Turks interpret the
event as symbolic of Western nations finally accepting Turkey as one of their
own. Related Links
Gen. Muhammad Naguib establishes Egyptian sovereignty; King Faruq I formally abdicates his throne
three days later. The events are
collectively known as the Egyptian Revolution.
Col. Gamal Abd al-Nasser, who
leads the nationalist forces in the coup, ultimately seizes power from Naguib in
1954. Related Links
The Society for the Protection
of Nature in Israel (SPNI) is founded to promote sustainable development of the
land. SPNI sponsors tours, research,
educational activities, and public campaigns for environmental protection and
historic preservation. Related Links
The Yad Vashem, the Holocaust
Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, serves as a repository for archives
and books on the Holocaust and for biographical information about those who
died in it. The compound houses two
museums, exhibit halls, and monuments.
Related Links
Set against the backdrop of the
Cold War, British and American intelligence groups worry that Mossadeq's
nationalist aspirations will lead to an eventual communist takeover. To avoid this, U.S. president Dwight Eisenhower approves a joint
British-American operation to overthrow Mossadeq. After the first day it appears the coup has failed, and the Shah
flees to Baghdad. Widespread rioting
ensues, flamed by the CIA and British intelligence services, and Mossadeq is
defeated. Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi
returns to power, and Gen. Fazlollah
Zahedi, the leader of military coup, becomes prime minister. Related Links
Ending years of Egyptian
demands, the British agree to withdraw from the Sudan and provide the Sudanese
people an opportunity for self-government.
The joint pact, signed in 1953, allows for a three-year transitional
period leading to full independence.
Elections are held late in 1953, and the first republican government
takes office in 1954. Related Links
Egypt and Britain conclude a
pact on the Suez Canal, ending 72 years of British occupation. In return, Egypt agrees to maintain freedom
of canal navigation. The last of the
80,000-strong British force leaves the canal zone by June 14, 1956. Related Links
Algeria fights a long and
bloody war before it reclaims its independence from France in 1962. More than 500,000 from both sides die in the
conflict. Related Links
The new Egyptian constitution
grants women the right to vote and to run for elected office. Related Links
The Baalbeck International
Festival inaugurates its first season with a performance of Jean Cocteau's La
Machine Infernale. The festival
runs annually until 1975, ceases performances during the civil war, and resumes
in 1997. It has featured the Arab
world's most popular performers as well as international artists, including
Ella Fitzgerald, Rudolf Nureyev, and the Bolshoi Ballet. Related Links
Tunisia's bey, or hereditary
ruler, assumes control of a new constitutional monarchy. A year later, Habib Bourguiba, president of
the country's legislative body, the National Assembly, moves to adopt a
constitution that ends the centuries-old tradition of rule by the bey. Bourguiba's policies over the next decade
aim to further secularize and modernize Tunisian society. Related Links
Most likely in response to the
U.S. decision to revoke its foreign aid
pledge to help build the Aswan High Dam project, Nasser decides to nationalize
the Suez Canal. Its toll revenues
provide a significant source of needed income.
This angers Britain and France, the former owners of the canal. Related Links
Britain and France conspire to
recapture the canal they once owned, with Israeli assistance. Israel invades Sinai, and Britain and France
"intervene" and occupy the canal zone. They withdraw under U.S.
and Soviet pressure, unsuccessful in their attempt. Related Links
In 1956, Arab nationalism
receives a huge boost from the failed attempt of Britain and France to regain
control of the Suez Canal from Egypt;
in the aftermath, Jordan's King Hussein relieves all British commanders
of their positions in the Arab League.
In 1957, with Arab nations promising to provide Jordan with enough money
to free it from its dependence on British subsidies, Hussein revokes the
Anglo-Jordanian treaty that had given Jordan full independence from the British
mandate in 1946 in exchange for ongoing British use of military facilities
within Jordan. Troops will fully
withdraw from Jordan later in the year.
Related Links
Egypt and Syria merge to form a
single political unit, with Gamal Abd al-Nasser as its president. This is designed as a first step toward
creating a pan-Arab union. As such, the
inhabitants are simply known as Arabs, the country called "Arab
territory." In 1958, the UAR forms a loose federation with Yemen, called the
United Arab States. A 1961 military
coup in Syria forces the breakup of the UAR, though Egypt continues to use the
name until 1971. Related Links
King Faisal II is assassinated
for being perceived as too closely aligned with former colonial power
Britain. Iraq is declared a republic,
and Gen. Abdel Karim Qasim becomes
president. The new government pursues a
foreign policy that is decidedly anti-Western. Related Links
With Egypt and Syria's pan-Arab
movement stirring up sentiments among Lebanon's religious groups, Lebanon's
fragile coalition government weakens.
The Lebanese army's loyalty to President Kamil Shamun wavers. With the outbreak of civil war between
Christians and Muslims, Shamun calls on the U.S. to send troops to secure peace.
The U.S., wanting to avoid another coup (as had just occurred in Iraq),
sends 5,000 Marines to Lebanon. Related Links
The oil boom provides Libya
with newfound financial independence, transforming a country with one of the
lowest standards of living into one full of opportunities, with growing
employment and plans for improved housing, health care, and education. Investing much of its oil profits in other
parts of the economy, Libya expands its industry, mining, and agricultural
base, irrigating new areas of the desert.
Most of the large farms, which are owned by the government, produce
foods that were formerly imported, including corn, wheat, and citrus fruits, as
well as cattle, sheep, and poultry.
Related Links
Oil is first discovered off of
Abu Dhabi in 1959. Just a year later,
oil is also found in Abu Dhabi's desert.
Dubai, Sharjah, and Ras al-Khaimah follow with discoveries of their own
over the next several years. Abu Dhabi,
once known as a fishing village, is today the richest of all the emirates. Dubai, originally known for its pearl trade,
is the second richest. Related Links
While Turkey's military agrees
with Atat¸rk, the founder of modern Turkey, that they stay out of politics,
they make an exception when it comes their role as guardian of the constitution
and Kemalism. By 1960, the military
determines that the government has departed from Kemalist principles and that
the republic is in danger. On May 27,
1960, the army seizes the principal government buildings and communications
centers and arrests most of the Democratic Party (DP) representatives, as well
as the president and prime minister.
The government is replaced by the Committee of National Unity (CNU), an
interim government comprised mainly of military personnel. By January 1961 a new constitution is
ratified, and in October elections are held, returning the government to
civilian rule. Related Links
The Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) forms as a group of developing
oil-producing countries seeking to enter the international oil market. Its objective today is to coordinate oil
policies and to secure fair prices for its member countries (which now number
13) and dependable supply to its customer nations. Related Links
The Shah's suspension of the
constitution and his dissolution of the legislature free him to proceed with
his plan for modernization, which has been opposed by religious conservatives
in the Majlis. The Shah abolishes the
practice of sharecropping, nationalizes dwindling forests, gives women voting
rights, and starts a massive rural literacy program.
After Kuwait gains its
independence from Britain on June 19, President Abdel Karim Qasim of Iraq
asserts a longstanding Iraqi claim to Kuwait.
Kuwait seeks and receives British military support, which in the end is
not needed, as Iraq does not launch an offensive. Iraq never formally withdraws its claim, however, and in 1990
invades Kuwait and claims it as Iraq's 19th province. Related Links
Massive amounts of money flow
into Abu Dhabi (now part of UAE) when it begins to export petroleum. Because the small local population cannot
meet the need for planned construction projects (e.g., of hospitals, roads,
schools), foreign workers are hired by the hundreds of thousands. Related Links
Chagall's windows, which depict
scenes of the 12 sons of Jacob, are presented at the synagogue's dedication
ceremony. Four of the windows suffer
damaged in the Six-Day War in 1967, and Chagall installs replacements in 1969. Three windows are still marked by bullet
holes. Related Links
When army officers in the north
overthrow the new imam, Muhammad al-Badr, the Yemen Arab Republic is
established. Civil war ensues. The republicans are backed by Egypt and the
Soviet Union, and the imam's supporters are backed by Saudi Arabia and
Britain. Related Links
The Ba'ath Party, upset with
the President Qasim's dictatorial rule, joins forces with the military to force
him out of power. Col. Abd al-Salam Muhammad Arif becomes president
and rules until his untimely death in a helicopter crash nine months later. Related Links
The countries sharing the basin
of the Jordan River have extremely limited sources of fresh water, and water
rights have been one of the leading sources of conflict in this troubled
region. In 1964, Israel's National
Water Carrier system, a complex of canals, pipelines, and tunnels built to
convey water to the coastal plain of Israel and the Negev Desert, began
diverting water from the Jordan River Basin.
This diversion led to the Arab Summit of 1964, where a plan was
developed to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River into Syria and Jordan --
preventing Jordan River water from reaching Israel. As the activities of the Headwater Diversion Plan began to take
shape from 1965-67, Israel attacked construction sites. These incidents regarding water issues led
up to the outbreak of the Six-Day War in June 1967.
Composed of various political
factions and guerrilla groups, the PLO is founded to serve as the coordinating
council for Palestinian organizations.
The Palestinain national charter of 1968 will call for an end to the
Jewish state. In 1988 the PLO will
accept the two state solution implicitly recognizing Israel's right to
exist. The PLO has employed both
terrorism and diplomacy in pursuit of its goals. Al-Fatah is the PLO's largest faction, and its leader, Yasser
Arafat, has been chairman of the PLO since 1968.
Turkey has a long history of
producing films. The first Turkish film
on record is a documentary produced in 1914, and the republic's first private
film studio, Kemal Films, began operations in 1921. Related Links
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and
other religious conservatives are angered by policies that they believe
contradict Islamic customs. Outspoken
on a number of issues, Khomeini's denunciations of the Shah's Status of Forces
bill (which allows U.S. military
personnel diplomatic immunity for crimes committed in Iran) results in his
exile to Turkey. In 1965, Khomeini
moves to Iraq, where he remains until 1978. Related Links
At the same time that President
Gamal Abd al-Nasser's government cracks down on the Muslim Brotherhood, other
groups suspected of agitating the public against the government are also shut
down. One such group is Zaynab
al-Ghazali's Muslim Women's Association.
Al-Ghazali founded the Muslim Women's Association in 1936, at age 18, to
instill the doctrines of Islam in women's minds, teach them about their rights
and duties, and call for the establishment of an Islamic state guided by the
Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad.
(The Sunnah is the example of practical leadership and the ideological
guidance provided by Muhammad, which transforms belief in God into a culture
and a civilization, and enables men and women to evolve a way of life.) Brought
to trial in 1966 and sentenced to a life term, al-Ghazali is released in 1971
by Nasser's successor, Anwar al-Sadat.
She continues to be a proponent of the establishment of a united Islamic
state. Related Links
A Danish archaeological
expedition uncovers signs of human habitation on the Qatar peninsula going back
to 4000 B.C.E. A British team in 1973
and a French team in 1976 continue the dig and add to its findings. Related Links
The Immigration Act of 1965
abolishes the quota system established in 1921 that restricted admission to the
U.S. according to a person's national
origins. Prior to 1961, strong
preference had been shown for people from Western hemisphere countries, while
those from Eastern countries were given far fewer visas. In the late 1970s, with people fleeing
political crises in Iran, Palestine, Lebanon, and Afghanistan, immigration from
Middle Eastern countries to the U.S.
will again rise dramatically. Related Links
A commercial banking crisis
slows the go-go banking industry of Beirut, which at mid-century had been the
repository of choice for oil money from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states. Beirut, the "Switzerland of the Middle
East," was also a favored destination of the European and American
elite. After the banking crisis
settles, the Lebanese economy will be strong again until the civil war in 1975. Related Links
Upon his death, President Abd
al-Salam Muhammad Arif of Iraq is succeeded by his older brother, Abd al-Rahman
Arif. Related Links
Agnon's novels and short
stories primarily concern the experiences of Eastern European (Ashkenazi)
Jews. His writing combines traditional
sources with 20th-century literary experimentation (such as stream of
consciousness). His best known novel, The
Day Before Yesterday (Temol Shilshom), was published in 1945. Related Links
Conflict ignites after three
weeks of increasing tensions, including a massive Arab troop buildup in the
Sinai Peninsula, as well as an Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran in the
Red Sea of ships to or from Israel. On
June 5, 1967, Israel responds by launching a surprise attack on Egypt. Other Arab nations, including Syria, Iraq,
Kuwait, and Jordan, join Egypt in the fighting. Israel seizes the Golan Heights from Syria, Sinai and the Gaza
Strip from Egypt, and East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan before a
cease-fire is agreed upon. Related Links
Closed during the Six-Day War
by the Egyptians, the Suez Canal becomes part of the boundary separating Egypt
and the Israeli-occupied Sinai Peninsula after the war. Remaining closed for the next eight years,
Egypt loses considerable revenue. Many
ships built after the closing (especially tankers) are too large to navigate
the canal.
In response to Egypt's military
defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War, President Gamal Abd al-Nasser
resigns. Popular demand, however,
quickly compels him to resume his post.
The People's Democratic
Republic of Yemen (Southern Yemen) is in economic shambles with the closure of
the Suez Canal following the Six-Day War and the loss of British trade. The country accepts aid from the Soviet
Union and other communist countries to stay afloat. Related Links
Yasser Arafat, leader of the
al-Fatah faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), is elected
chairman of the executive committee.
After his election, he shifts the PLO's main guerrilla forces to
Jordan. Related Links
This book, Oz's best known
novel, is thought to symbolize the struggles of the diverse cultures in
Jerusalem to coexist. Related Links
Following the Ba'athist coup,
Gen. Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr becomes
president of Iraq. The country's
political system enjoys relative stability over the next 10 years. Money from oil exports contributes to an
economic boom. Between 1972 and 1975,
annual oil revenues increase from $1 billion to $8.2 billion. Related Links
The film The Cow, which
concerns a poor village that loses its only cow and the devastation of that
loss, is banned in Iran upon its release for its depiction of poverty and poor
social conditions. Mehrjui's
controversial, critically acclaimed film ushers in the Iranian New Wave in
filmmaking, noted for its rejection of commercialism and melodrama in favor of
social consciousness. Iran's film
tradition is currently among the most celebrated in the world. Related Links
Kiev-born and Milwaukee-raised
Golda Meir emigrated to Palestine in 1921.
After holding positions in Israel's first government beginning in 1948
-- as an ambassador, a member of the Knesset, and foreign minister for 10 years
-- Meir assumes the role of prime minister upon the death of Levi Eshkol in
1969. Under her leadership, Israel
strengthens relations with the U.S.
Presiding over Israel during the Yom Kippur War, Meir is harshly
criticized for Israel's lack of preparedness against the surprise attack. In April 1974 she resigns, despite having
won the election a few months earlier.
She dies at age 80 in December 1978.
Related Links
Ali succeeds Qahtan al-Shabi,
who is overthrown by the Marxist National Liberation Front. The following year the country is renamed
the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, and during Ali's rule, most of the
economy is placed under government control.
Related Links
Qaddafi creates his own
political system, the Third International Theory, as an alternative to
capitalism and communism. It is a
combination of socialism and Islam.
From this point on on, all aspects of Libyan life will be controlled by
Qaddafi. He declares a jamahariyya
(government of the masses) and calls for political, legal, and social changes
in accord with his "green book."
Related Links
The year 1969 sees periodic
clashes between PLO guerrillas based in Lebanon and the Lebanese army. In October, the Lebanese army begins an
active campaign against Palestinian forces.
But support for the PLO is evenly split across the country. Army leaders fear that a decisive defeat of
the Palestinians will splinter the nation.
As a result, army commander Gen.
Emil Bustani signs the Cairo Agreement with PLO leader Yasser
Arafat. Officially secret, the Cairo
Agreement apparently grants the Palestinians the right to keep weapons in their
camps and to attack Israel across Lebanon's border.
Food-processing, textiles and
traditional handicrafts, and the banking industries in Libya are among those
put under government control. The
economy depends primarily on revenues from the oil sector, and although Libya
enjoys immense oil revenues coupled with a small population, most of the money
stays within the centralized government, and little flows to the general
population. Related Links
A second, or "High,"
Aswan Dam is built with Soviet assistance to replace the older, less effective
Aswan "Low" Dam. The dam has
stopped the river's annual floods by trapping its waters in a reservoir and
slowly releasing it during the dry season.
This allows farmers along the Nile to plant year round. Unfortunately, the dam also traps the
river's fertile silt, forcing the use of artificial fertilizers by farmers and
causing pollution. Other effects of the
dam are riverbank erosion and high levels of soil salinity. Related Links
Imam Muhammad al-Badr, Northern
Yemen's leader, is exiled to Britain. A
new government established by the republicans lasts only four years before army
leaders seize control and steer the country in a conservative direction. Related Links
With the March Proclamation,
signed by Iraq's Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) and Kurdistan Democratic
Party (KDP) leader Mullah Mustafa Barzani, the Iraqi government and the Kurds
agree to the creation of a Kurdish autonomous region within the next four
years. Although the RCC issues decrees
in 1974 and '75 that provide for its administration, these terms are not
acceptable to all Kurdish leaders, and a major war ensues. By 1988 the Kurds are defeated. Guerrilla activities, however, continue to
this day in parts of Kurdistan.
The PLO's failed attempt to
overthrow King Hussein of Jordan, known as Black September, results in the
PLO's moving its main base of operations out of Jordan and into Lebanon.
Egyptian president Gamal Abd
al-Nasser dies of cardiac arrest after negotiating a Jordan-Palestinian
truce. His vice president, Anwar
al-Sadat, succeeds him, running unopposed in the presidential election.
Bourguiba becomes the first
Arab leader to publicly advocate mutual recognition with Israel.
The North Gas Field is among
the top five largest natural gas reserves in the world.
Gen. Faruk G¸rler, leader of the armed forces chiefs, presents a
memorandum to Turkish president Cevdet Sunay demanding a "strong and
credible government." The civilian officials are told that the military
will take over the administration of the state unless a government is found
that can rein in the violence and implement the economic and social reforms,
including land reform, stipulated in the 1961 constitution. Prime Minister Suleyman Demirel resigns the
same day. Nihat Erim replaces Demirel
and sets about forming a "national unity, above-party government"
that will enlist the support of the major parties. This event is known as the "coup by memorandum." Related Links
Qatar and Bahrain refuse to
join the United Arab Emirates.
The UAE is founded as a federation
of six independent emirates, or sheikhdoms.
The provisional constitution, made permanent in 1996, allows for a
multitiered national government consisting of executive, legislative, and
judicial branches. In 1972 a seventh
emirate joins the UAE.
Until the early '70s, Aramco is
owned by California Arabian Standard Oil Company (Casoc), Texaco, Standard Oil
Company of New Jersey (later renamed Exxon), and Socony-Vacuum (now Mobil Oil
Company). In 1968 the Saudi minister of
petroleum and mineral resources had publicly broached the idea of Saudi
participation in Aramco, and after long negotiations, it is agreed that the
Saudi government will buy 25 percent of the company. Over the next 16 years, Aramco will be converted to a totally
Saudi-owned company called Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco).
The publication of El Saadawi's
book results in her dismissal by the Ministry of Health as its director of
public health. Over the next decade,
she is imprisoned for criticizing government policies. El Saadawi goes on to found the Arab Women's
Solidarity Association (AWSA), the first legal, independent feminist
organization in Egypt. The AWSA, which
is dedicated to "lifting the veil from the mind of Arab women," is
banned in 1991 after criticizing U.S.
involvement in the Gulf War.
Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad
al-Thani, the grandson of Sheikh Abdullah, becomes Emir of Qatar. He is generally considered the first modern
ruler of Qatar. Before becoming emir, he
served in various capacities and branches of the Qatari government --
ministries of foreign affairs, finance, petroleum, education, culture, and as
prime minister.
The Treaty of Friendship and
Cooperation serves as the basis of friendly relations between the two countries
and will continue to do so into the 21st century.
Prior to 1972, U.S. and British companies held a three-quarter
share in Iraq's oil production. Soviet
petroleum experts help Iraq develop its oil industry to the extent that Baghdad
ends its reliance on Western companies;
the Soviets also help Iraq nationalize the Iraq Petroleum Company. In the ensuing years, Iraq rapidly increases
its oil output, becoming the world's second largest exporter of oil by 1979.
A strained Soviet-Egyptian
relationship ruptures on July 18, 1972, when Sadat orders the immediate
withdrawal of 5,000 Soviet military advisors and 15,000 air combat
personnel. Contributing factors are
Moscow's refusal of economic and military aid, Egypt's unwillingness to play
the role of a Soviet foreign-policy pawn, and efforts by the U.S. to undermine the relationship. The break in relations also reflects a shift
in Egypt to more pro-Western policies.
Gunmen from an underground
terrorist organization calling itself Black September, linked to the Palestine
Liberation Organization, take the Israeli men's Olympic team hostage. Two of the Israelis are killed almost immediately. In the ensuing botched rescue attempt, the
remaining nine Israelis, as well as several of the captors and German police
officers, are killed.
In addition to the prohibition
on fishing and hunting without a license, Jordanian law also prohibits its
citizens from cutting trees, shrubs, and plants. The steps are taken as part of a focus on conservation of the
environment.
In 1974 King Hussein gives
women the right to vote and run for public office. But because there are no parliamentary elections between 1968 and
1989, women must wait 15 years to exercise this right. Related Links
The Egyptians and the Syrians
attack Israel, hoping to reclaim the lands lost in the 1967 Six-Day War. At the start of the war they make initial
gains but are forced to retreat after an Israeli counterattack. This war becomes known as both the October
War and the Yom Kippur War. Many
Israelis, upset at their country's unpreparedness for this attack, blame Prime
Minister Golda Meir, who later resigns.
While Egypt and Syria are ultimately unsuccessful in their bid, both
sides appear to be hurt in the war.
A supporter of Egypt, Jordan,
and Syria in the 1967 Six-Day War against Israel, Saudi Arabia still harbors
resentment when the Yom Kippur War (October War) erupts. In retaliation for U.S. support of Israel, Saudi Arabia participates
in a 1973 Arab oil boycott of the U.S.
and other Western nations. The
price of oil quadruples, dramatically increasing Saudi Arabia's wealth and
political influence. Related Links
The Knesset installs Yitzhak
Rabin as prime minister following Golda Meir's resignation. Under Rabin's leadership, the government
places special emphasis on strengthening the economy, solving social problems,
and reinforcing Israeli defense. Three
years after his election, however, he is forced to resign when a journalist
reveals that his wife has a bank account in the U.S., in violation of Israeli
law at the time. After stepping down as
prime minister, Rabin serves in several roles for the Labor Party. In July 1992, the Labor Party wins the
election, and Rabin becomes prime minister once again -- a role he holds until
his assassination in 1995.
Turkish and Greek Cypriots
lived together on the island of Cyprus for almost five centuries. On July 15, 1974, the president is
overthrown in a military coup.
Diplomacy fails to resolve the crisis.
Turkey invades Cyprus by sea and air on July 20, 1974, asserting its
right to protect the Turkish minority.
Peace talks fail, and the Turks gain control of 40 percent of the island
-- amounting to partition of Cyprus.
Turkey continues to refuse to remove its troops, despite repeated
condemnations by the United Nations. Related Links
Oman TV, which is operated by
the Ministry of Information, broadcasts one channel in Arabic. The Omani government prohibits the
establishment of privately owned radio or television companies, but people are
allowed to use satellite dishes to access many foreign channels.
Although they have been allowed
to attend classes at Saudi Arabia's King Saud University since 1961, women are
not admitted as full-time students eligible to pursue a degree until 1975. The next year, the Center for Women's
University Studies will be founded to oversee all aspects of women's
education. Today, women are free to
pursue higher degrees in a wide range of areas. Founded in 1957 as Riyadh University, King Saud University is one
of the oldest universities in Saudi Arabia.
In a career that spanned
decades, Umm Kulthum, the "Star of the East," was a beloved fixture
on Egyptian radio. Her songs, which
combined the Western popular tradition with traditional Arab-Egyptian music,
often had political overtones, supporting Egyptian self-rule and the revolution
of 1952. Following her country's defeat
in the Six-Day War, she embarked on a tour of Egypt and donated all the
proceeds to the Egyptian government.
On March 6, 1975, Iraq and Iran
sign a treaty known as the Algiers Agreement, or more precisely the Iran-Iraq
Treaty on International Borders and Good Neighborly Relations, whose provisions
are brokered by Jordan's King Hussein.
The signing takes place at an OPEC convention in Algiers. The agreement delineates the international
border between the two countries as the deepest point of the Shatt al-Arab
estuary, as opposed to its eastern shore.
Baghdad agrees to the treaty in return for Tehran's commitment to stop
covert U.S. and Iranian support for the
Kurds. In 1980 Iraqi president Saddam
Hussein invades Iran, hoping in part to reverse the 1975 agreement.
One cause for conflict is a
power imbalance between the dominant right-wing Christian population and the
growing Muslim population who feels excluded from real government. A second area of conflict is the Arab-Israeli
conflict, with Israel's support for the Lebanese Christian groups, and
increasing PLO attacks on Israel from Lebanese bases. In the summer of 1975 full-scale civil war breaks out between the
Muslim coalition allied with Palestinian groups and the Christian-dominated
militias. In April 1976, an uneasy
cease-fire is imposed when Syrian military forces intervene at the request of
the Lebanese president and with the approval of the Arab League of States. Nevertheless, sporadic violence continues, and
in 1978 Israel invades southern Lebanon in an attempt to eliminate Palestinian
bases. By mid-1981, 53 private armies
are operating in Lebanon. Cease-fire
efforts by the U.S. and others have
fleeting impact. Political
assassinations, civilian massacres, and kidnappings continue, including a 1983
attack on the U.S. Marine barracks in
Beirut. Following one of many
cease-fires, a plan is formed at a conference in Taif, Saudi Arabia, calling
for a new constitution increasing Muslim representation and accepting a special
Syrian relationship. By late 1990, the
civil war is at an end. Since then,
Hezbollah rocket attacks, alternating with Israeli air strikes and a 1996
Israeli incursion, has kept the situation fluid in southern Lebanon. Both sides hope to end the combat, but
neither will compromise on a demand for Israeli withdrawal from the Golan
Heights.
Assembled from several smaller
women's societies and under the leadership of Sheikha Fatima, the wife of UAE
president Sheikh Zayed, this federally funded organization makes
recommendations to the government on such matters as health and education.
The Kurds -- an ethnic group
acutely conscious of its cultural differences from the Arabs -- have long
struggled to achieve recognition within Iraq, staging rebellions since
1961. By the end of 1977, the Kurdish
people are granted greater autonomy, and Kurdish is recognized in Iraq as an
official language.
By 1998, 15,000 students will
attend UAE University (UAEU). The
Higher Colleges of Technology, today with 10 campuses, open in 1988, providing
a further 10,000 students with advanced technical training. These universities, like other development
projects, are funded by oil money.
During his visit to Israel,
President Sadat addresses the Knesset, Israel's parliament, and officially
recognizes the state of Israel. This
breakthrough in relations paves the way for peace between Egypt and Israel.
Said's theory of how the West
creates the image of the exotic East, published in the book Orientalism,
influences many areas of critical thought.
Said has written extensively about the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in
works such as The Question of Palestine (1979). His memoir, Out of Place (2000),
examines a boyhood defined by personal and political conflict.
While Northern Yemen practices
a market economy, Southern Yemen's economy is controlled by the state. Saleh will rule for two decades before being
declared senile and removed from power.
Queen Noor, born Lisa Halaby in
the United States, plays a highly visible role during her husband's reign,
working hard to advance causes important to Jordan and the wider world. She directs and sponsors programs committed
to the advancement of women in society, children's health care, education, the
arts, and environmental protection. She
also actively promotes international exchange as a means by which to enhance
understanding of Middle Eastern politics and improve Arab-Western
relations. Related Links
From the middle of 1978, street
demonstrations against the Shah's policies of Westernization, as well as his
authoritarian rule, are reaching an unprecedented level. Many cities are placed under martial law,
but people flood the streets to defy the Shah.
During one such demonstration on September 8, army tanks are used to
disperse demonstrators. Soldiers are
ordered to shoot. More than 600 people
are killed in Zhaleh Square alone. This
day becomes known as Black Friday, and the square's name is later changed to
the Square of Martyrs.
Just five years after the Yom
Kippur War, U.S. president Jimmy Carter
hosts Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian president Anwar
al-Sadat at Camp David. This historic
meeting will result in the first peace accord to be signed by Israel and one of
its Arab neighbors. Several months of
more detailed negotiations lead to the signing of a peace treaty on March 26,
1979, in Washington, D.C. Under the
treaty's terms, control of the Sinai returns to Egypt, while Israel retains the
Gaza Strip. In exchange for the Sinai's
return, Egypt recognizes Israel and establishes full diplomatic relations with
the Jewish state. Furthermore, Egypt
guarantees that most of its forces will stay more than 50 kilometers from the
Israeli border. The treaty also allows
Egyptian and Israeli citizens to travel between the two countries. Most Arab nations boycott Egypt as a result
of the treaty; Oman is the one
exception. Less than three years after
the treaty is signed, Islamic extremists assassinate Sadat. Related Links
During the late 1970s, dissent
and demonstrations protesting the dictatorship of the Shah increase in
Iran. The writings of the exiled
Ayatollah Khomeini, Shii Muslim Supreme Leader, begin to circulate widely. Throughout the final months of the 1978,
demonstrators seize government buildings, shut down businesses with massive
strikes, and assassinate government officials.
On January 16, 1979, the Shah flees Iran; Khomeini returns on February 1.
Less than a month later, on February 12, the prime minister flees as
well. Related Links
After the Shah is driven from
Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini returns from exile to a welcoming crowd of several
million. The Islamic Revolutionary
Council is formed, and the country is declared the Islamic Republic of Iran on
April 1. Khomeini and his supporters
blame the Shah and Western influences for oppressing Iran and corrupting
Iranian Islamic traditions. Related Links
Under the Ayatollah Khomeini,
law codes based on Islam are introduced in Iran, ending the Shah's radical
modernization policies. Khomeini's
strict version of Islamic religious standards become the law of everyday
life. Some Iranians are upset by the
strict religious system. Many people
who accepted Western cultural influences leave Iran, including most Jews and
Christians. The
"Islamicization" of the government continues into the 21st
century. Related Links
Iraqi president Ahmad Hassan
al-Bakr resigns his position citing health reasons. Vice President Saddam Hussein succeeds him as president and
chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). One year later, Hussein leads Iraq into a bloody war with the new
Islamic Republic of Iran that will last for almost a decade.
A group of Sunni Muslim
fundamentalists calling for the overthrow of the pro-Western Saudi government
barricades themselves inside the Holy Mosque of Mecca. After two weeks of fighting, the siege ends,
leaving 27 Saudi soldiers and more than 100 rebels dead. Sixty-three more rebels are later publicly
beheaded. Related Links
The students demand the return
of the Shah to stand trial for crimes.
Though some hostages are released, 52 of the Americans are held for 444
days before their release. In response
to this hostage crisis, the U.S. freezes
all Iranian assets invested in the U.S.
Related Links
The Soviet Union invades
Afghanistan in an effort to stabilize its government and support
socialism. The conflict lasts 10 years
and is often referred to as the Soviet Union's Vietnam. Seventy thousand Soviet soldiers will die in
the course of the conflict. Related Links
A scholar and proponent of
Islamic government, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr is executed by Saddam Hussein's
government. He had advocated the
establishment of Iraq as an Islamic state.
His sister, fellow activist and novelist Amina Sadr, is also
killed. All political opponents of
Saddam Hussein's regime risk a similar fate.
On September 12, 1980, the
armed forces seize control of Turkey for the third time. While the 1960 and 1971 military coups were
driven by institutional reform, the 1980 action is deemed necessary to shore up
the order created by the earlier interventions. A five-member executive body, the National Security Council, is
appointed. On September 21, the NSC
installs a predominantly civilian Cabinet.
Related Links
Though the reasons behind the
war are complex, border skirmishes and a dispute over rights to the Shatt
al-Arab waterway contribute to the warfare.
Iraq seizes thousands of square miles and several important oil
fields. Over an eight-year period, more
than 500,000 Iraqis and Iranians die, with neither side able to claim
victory. Related Links
Anwar al-Sadat's conflicts with
Islamic groups in Egypt -- including a crackdown that led to the arrest of more
than 1,500 people -- as well as enduring anger over the peace treaty he signed
with Israel lead to his assassination.
Hosni Mubarak succeeds him as president. Related Links
During the 1980s in Oman, oil
and tar from passing ships cover the country's beaches, pollution endangers
many of its migratory birds, and corals are being damaged by anchors, fishing
nets, and other equipment. One plan to
eliminate oil spills focuses on building an area where tankers can safely
discharge their ballast.
In 1976, the arch-conservative
Muslim Brotherhood leads an armed insurgency against the al-Asad regime, which
is criticized for being secular and representing only minority interests. This particular public demonstration is met
with heavy artillery fire and ends in massive casualties.
Israel invades Lebanon to drive
out Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, which had been using the
country as a base for anti-Israeli operations.
The United States sends Marines to oversee the peaceful withdrawal of
the PLO from the Lebanese capital, Beirut.
Related Links
Lebanese Christian Maronite
president-elect Bashir Gemayel is assassinated. Two days later, Christian militias allied with Israel against the
PLO enter the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps in Beirut and massacre some 800
unarmed Palestinians. The Kahan
Commission (an Israeli commission of inquiry) finds that Defense Minister Ariel
Sharon bears personal responsibility because he did not order 'appropriate
measures for preventing or reducing the chances of a massacre.' As a result,
Sharon gave up his defense portfolio but remained in the cabinet. Related Links
Islamists in Egypt accuse the
book A Banquet of Seaweed (which isn't published in Egypt until 2000) of
blasphemy. The plot focuses on two
leftist Iraqi intellectuals who flee the injustice of Iraqi president Saddam
Hussein in the late 1970s. The Egyptian
authorities have banned many books and films in recent years because of
Islamist complaints that they contain anti-Islamic material.
Hunting and rapid land
development, which threaten critical habitat, have driven many animals in the
UAE to the point of extinction over a very short time.
The U.S. mediates a peace and withdrawal agreement
between Israel and Lebanon in May 1983.
The PLO had been using Lebanon as a base of operations against Israel,
and several times in the 1970s and '80s Israel had invaded Lebanon as a result. Under the terms of the peace agreement,
Israeli forces begin to leave Lebanon, but maintain control over a 12-mile-wide
"security zone" in southern Lebanon, near the Israeli border. The Hezbollah, an Islamic militant group
that opposes Israel's presence in Lebanon, continues to attack military posts
in southern Lebanon and northern Israel.
Israeli forces will continue to combat these forces for another 22
years, until Israel leaves southern Lebanon entirely in January of 2000. Related Links
Gen. Evren leads a 1980 coup and imposes military rule in an attempt
to end years of fighting between opposing radical groups that ultimately leads
to 5,000 deaths. Returning the country
to democratic rule in 1983, he will serve as Turkey's president until 1989.
Begin's resignation, an event
publicly attributed to his depression following his wife's death, follows the
Israeli invasion of Lebanon (which fails to accomplish all of its objectives)
and the embarrassing massacres at the hands of Israel-allied Christian militias
of Palestinian civilians in the refugee camps of Beirut. Yitzhak Shamir succeeds Begin as prime
minister, replacing him as head of the Herut Party.
During the 1975-90 Lebanese
civil war, a suicide bomber detonates a truck full of explosives, killing 241
U.S. Marines and wounding more than 100
others. The 241 were part of a
contingent of 1,800 Marines sent to Lebanon as part of a multinational force to
help separate the warring Lebanese factions.
No group claims responsibility for the attack. Related Links
The Kurdistan Workers' Party,
founded in 1978, launches a campaign of terror designed to win independence for
the ethnic Kurdish people living primarily in southeastern Turkey. Between 1984 and 1998, an estimated 20,000
to 40,000 people die in clashes between Turkish troops and Kurdish militants
and civilians.
Sultan Salman al-Saud flies
aboard the space shuttle Discovery as a payload specialist.
Earnings from oil production
and refinement will result in significant contributions to the Yemeni economy
over the next decade. Talks of the
reunification of Northern and Southern Yemen accelerate.
A Marxist clash with the
government of Southern Yemen results in civil war.
After a week of denying any
covert activities, U.S. president
Ronald Reagan publicly confirms that the U.S.
secretly sold arms to Iran, using Israel as an intermediary, with the
goal of improving relations with Iran.
Reagan later admits the arrangement had become a swap -- arms assistance
in return for hostages in Lebanon. The
American public is outraged by the dealings with a hostile Iran, as well as
with Reagan himself, for breaking his campaign promise to never enter into such
negotiations. Some of the arms profits
are later discovered to have been diverted to illegally aid Nicaraguan Contra
rebels, who are locked in combat with the Communist-backed Sandinistas. Related Links
Young Palestinian demonstrators
hurl stones and incendiary devices at Israeli troops in the Occupied
Territories. The Israeli military
responds with rubber bullets and live ammunition, consistent with its "iron-fist
policy." Curfews are imposed on Palestinians, and arrests and deportations
follow. More than 20,000 people, both
Israelis and Palestinians, are killed or injured between 1987 and 1993. Related Links
Iraqi women hold professional
positions (e.g., doctors, lawyers), as well as positions in education and
social welfare offices. They are allowed
to vote and serve as elected officials in the National Assembly.
The Kurdish areas of northern
Iraq have long been in conflict with the Baghdad regime. In the Kurdish town of Halabjah, Iraq
unleashes chemical weapons, killing between 50,000 and 100,000 people. Related Links
Although King Hussein
recognized the Palestine Liberation Organization as the sole legitimate
representative of the Palestinian people in 1974, he severs political links
with the PLO and orders its main offices closed. His actions stem from his frustration over the PLO's issuing of a
14-point statement calling for an end to Israeli occupation and an independent
Palestinian state, and Yasser Arafat's refusal to accept UN resolutions as a
basis for peace talks.
The USS Vincennes opens
fire on a civilian airbus as it crosses the Gulf on a scheduled flight. The Navy claims that the aircraft was
mistaken for a fighter jet. The
Iranians regard the shooting down of the plane as a "terrorist" act
and seek retribution through the World Court.
The U.S. pays $131.8 million in
compensation in 1996.
The cease-fire ends eight years
of war between Iran and Iraq. The
Iraqis now turn their attention to the Kurdish population, many of whom had
supported Iran. Thousands of Kurds flee
Iraq for refuge in Turkey.
A talented pilot in the Afghan
air force, Abdul Ahad Mohmand, is chosen to train as a Russian cosmonaut and
travel to the Mir space station as part of International Group 6. Mohmand remains in space for nine days.
Citing UN Partition Plan 181
from 1947 to support its claim, the PLO's legislative body, the Palestine
National Council (PNC), declares a Palestinian state that includes land under
Israeli occupation since 1967 (namely the Gaza Strip and West Bank). A flag and a national anthem for the new
state are also adopted.
Benazir Bhutto, daughter of the
country's ex-premier, is sworn in as prime minister of Pakistan. She is the first woman to head the
government of an Islamic state.
Best known for his Cairo
trilogy (Palace Walk, Palace of Desire, and Sugar Street, written
between 1956-57), author Naguib Mahfouz has written more than 30 novels that
combine the Western narrative style with traditional Arabic storytelling. Over his long career, he has written in both
realistic and fantastic styles.
The United States had long
refused to deal with the Palestine Liberation Organization until it accepted
certain conditions: The PLO, headed by
Yasser Arafat, must recognize Israel's right to exist and renounce the use of
terrorism. By the late 1980s, talk of
peace negotiations is in the air. To
participate, though, Arafat and the PLO acknowledge that they must satisfy the
U.S.'s preconditions, and in December, Arafat promises PLO recognition of
Israel and renouncement of terrorism. A
U.S.-PLO dialogue begins shortly thereafter;
these talks ultimately lead to the 1991 Madrid Conference.
All 270 people onboard Pan Am
flight 103 are killed in a bombing believed to be in retaliation for U.S. bombing raids on Tripoli in 1986. The 1986 raids led to the destruction of
Libyan president Qaddafi's house and the death of his young daughter. Qaddafi is widely suspected of using Libya's
oil funds to support terrorism abroad, including groups as disparate as the
Black Panthers in the United States and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in
Northern Ireland. Related Links
In 1989 Osama bin Laden forms
al-Qaeda. Meaning "the base,"
al-Qaeda grows out of the network of Arab volunteers who had gone to
Afghanistan in the 1980s to fight the Soviets under the banner of Islam. Its creation coincides with the Soviets'
withdrawal from Afghanistan. The
charismatic bin Laden uses the contacts he had made there to organize this
international group of motivated Islamic radicals. Since 1996, al-Qaeda has been headquartered in Afghanistan, where
bin Laden was able to forge a close relationship with the ruling Taliban. Al-Qaeda, however, is thought to operate in
40 to 50 countries, not only in the Middle East and Asia but also in North
America and Europe. A loosely knit
group, it operates across continents as a chain of interlocking networks comprising
different groups, or "cells." While bin Laden is the founder and
leader of al-Qaeda, Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri is regarded as the mastermind of
many of its most infamous operations, including the attacks on two U.S. embassies in Africa in 1998 and the
September 11 attacks against New York and Washington.
In the mid-1980s, a number of
museums open, including the Ethnographical Museum and the Qatar National Museum
in Doha. Qatar Airways is established
in 1994, carrying passengers to and from points in the Middle East, Asia, and
Europe. Though still not a popular
destination for tourists, Qatar hosts a number of conferences, summits, and
athletic competitions each year.
Many Muslims believe that The
Satanic Verses, a novel about a young Indian's life in Britain and the
roots of his Muslim faith, irreverently fictionalizes the early Islamic
community and Muslim life. Khomeini
issues a fatwa, or religious opinion, on the matter. A $2.5 million price is also put on Rushdie's head. Rushdie spends nine years in hiding until
Iran's government announces it no longer supports attempts to kill him. Related Links
This popular stock exchange attracts
investors from the Gulf and from the West.
Some two million Iranians
attend the Ayatollah Khomeini's funeral in Tehran in 1989. Thousands of mourners are injured in the
chaos. After Khomeini's death, Ali
Khameini becomes ayatollah, Iran's chief religious leader (also known as the
Supreme Leader).
Stricter interpretations of
Islamic law are imposed under Lt.
Gen. al-Bashir's regime.
Whereas only 3 percent of
Yemeni women are literate in 1975, by the early '90s the country's female literacy
rate hits 26 percent. Yemeni women
share the same right to education as men.
Related Links
North and south reunite after
nearly a decade of trying. The
formation of the Republic of Yemen ends centuries of tribal and religious
squabbles and signals the end of absolute rule. A democratic system of government based on popular elections,
freedom of speech, and an independent judiciary is installed. Related Links
Iraq's invasion of Kuwait is
triggered in part because of Iraq's inability to repay more than $20 billion in
loans to Kuwait, but also because of other issues related to historical border
disputes. By a vote of 14-0, the UN
Security Council condemns the invasion and demands unconditional withdrawal of
Iraqi troops from Kuwait. On August 6,
the UN imposes sanctions on Iraq, ending all trade with the aggressor nation. A U.S.-led coalition forms to forcibly
remove Iraq from Kuwait. The Persian
Gulf War will cost $8.1 billion and 383 U.S.
lives before it ends in March 1991.
Related Links
After Saddam Hussein's invasion
of Kuwait, King Fahd fears his kingdom will be Saddam's next target, and does
not hesitate to host U.S. troops on
Saudi soil. Related Links
Many Yemenis had long sought
work in Saudi Arabia, as Yemen produces few goods for export and depends on
jobs outside the country for good wages.
When the Yemeni government calls for an "Arab solution" to the
conflict in the Gulf and insists on Western troop withdrawal from the region,
Saudi Arabia orders Yemeni workers home.
The Yemeni workforce and the country's economy suffer greatly as a
result.
The Charter of Lebanese
National Reconciliation, or the Taif Accord, is signed into law. It establishes a more representative
executive branch based on recent estimates of the population. A half-Christian, half-Muslim Cabinet
assumes many of the powers of the president, and the Muslim prime minister is
given powers more equitable to those of the Christian president. Related Links
Over the past decade, many
Eastern European countries have begun to mitigate their foreign policies on
Israel, opening diplomatic relations and lifting emigration bans. The migration of Jews from Russia and former
Soviet states gives Israel the largest Russian-speaking population outside the
former Soviet Union. Related Links
Following the Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait in August 1990, the United States, the former Soviet Union, Japan, and
much of Europe and the Middle East condemn the attack and resolve to drive the
invaders out. Of note, Turkey, the sole
Muslim member of NATO, allows the U.S.
to use its territory as a staging point for strikes on Iraq during the
Persian Gulf War. Saudi Arabia does
likewise. Some 100,000 Iraqis are
killed in the war, with relatively few reported coalition casualties. Though his army is forced to surrender,
Iraqi president Saddam Hussein does not relinquish power. Related Links
Coalition ground operations
begin and last only three days before occupying Iraqi troops are expelled from
Kuwait. Related Links
The Iraqi army suppresses an
uprising of Kurds in the north and Shii Muslims in southern Iraq. More than a million Kurds flee to Turkey and
Iran. Related Links
In return for foreign lenders
agreeing to wipe out $10 billion in debt, Egypt promises to adopt a sales tax,
cut fuel subsidies, and slash tariffs on foreign goods. For the first time since Egypt nationalized
major industries in the 1960s, the government also lets foreigners buy Egyptian
property, control Egyptian banks, and even own and operate Egyptian power
stations and highways. Related Links
Under the terms of the
agreement, Iraq agrees to pay war damages to Kuwait and to destroy its chemical
and biological weapons stockpiles and production facilities. The United Nations is charged with enforcing
the agreement. U.S. forces withdraw from southern Iraq on April 14. Related Links
Insisting on an Arab solution
to the Persian Gulf crisis (which began in August 1990 with the Iraqi invasion
of Kuwait), King Hussein of Jordan and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat
spearhead peace initiatives, but are regarded as appeasers of Iraq's Saddam
Hussein by the West and the US's Gulf Arab allies. Both King Hussein and Yasser Arafat suffer global diplomatic
isolation while, more locally, Gulf states cut off their financial aid. As aid from Gulf Arab states and other
income sources contract, refugees flood Jordan, stunting its GDP growth and
straining government resources. Because
Jordan is a small country with inadequate supplies of water and other natural
resources such as oil, the loss of aid from neighboring Arab states aggravates
its already serious economic problems, forcing the government to stop most debt
payments and suspend rescheduling negotiations. Related Links
The entire Middle East region,
even those countries not directly involved in the fighting, suffers a toll from
the Gulf War. Weather patterns are
disrupted, black rain (from oil residues and acids) destroys crops, and the
number of respiratory ailments soars.
Related Links
The war with Iran from 1980-88
and the recent Gulf War, together with the subsequent imposition of
international sanctions, has a devastating effect on Iraq's economy and
society. UN reports describe living
standards as being at subsistence level.
Some 47,000 children under 5 years of age are believed to have died from
war-related causes following the Gulf War alone. Related Links
Although the Kurdish-language
ban -- in effect since Turkey's military rule in 1980 -- is lifted for use in
publications, the ban on its use in the political arena remains in place. Related Links
The constitution of the
Republic of Yemen is ratified, providing for a president, vice president, House
of Representatives, and Council of Ministers. Related Links
Airlifts to Israel of Ethiopian
Jews suffering from famine and oppression had begun in the 1980s, prior to
Operation Solomon. The integration of
Ethiopians into Israeli society has not been smooth for reasons both of culture
and race. Related Links
Riddled by fraud, Abu Dhabi's
Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) fails, creating huge liability
claims from international investors with accounts there. Twelve bank officials are sent to jail and
fined $9 billion in damages. Related Links
The Madrid Peace Conference is
jointly sponsored by the United States and Russia. Two negotiating tracks are established: Separate bilateral talks involving Israel, the Palestinians,
Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon are intended to resolve past conflicts and sign
peace treaties; and multilateral
negotiations are aimed at building the Middle East of the future. Related Links
In the first round of general
elections in Algeria in 1991, the FIS wins 188 seats outright and seems sure to
obtain an absolute majority in the second round. The National People's Assembly is dissolved by presidential
decree, and a military council takes power.
After violent demonstrations, the FIS is disbanded. In June, President Mohammed Boudiaf is
assassinated by a bodyguard with Islamist links. Increasing violence is linked to the Armed Islamic Group (GIA). The FIS election victory and response by the
Algerian state opens a debate in the Middle East and the West on whether
Islamists should be allowed to come to power democratically and what the
consequences would be. Islamists feel
frustrated with the democratic process, and many turn to more radical methods. Related Links
Businessmen Hayrettin Karaca
and Nihat Gokyigit establish the Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion,
for Reforestation and the Protection of Natural Habitats (TEMA) in 1992. Because 45 percent of Turkey's work force is
involved in agriculture and nearly 80 percent of total land area is threatened
by soil erosion in particular, this is considered a major concern in
Turkey. Related Links
A native of Cairo, Boutros
Boutros-Ghali increases the number of UN peacekeeping missions worldwide during
his five-year term, sending troops into hotspots like Bosnia, Cambodia, Haiti,
Rwanda, and Somalia. The U.S.,
dissatisfied with his performance, prevents his reelection in 1996. Related Links
The citizens of the
Kurdish-controlled area of Iraqi Kurdistan elect a National Assembly and leader
of the Kurdistan Liberation Movement.
The stated purpose of the election is to fill the legal and
administrative vacuum left by the withdrawal of the Iraqi government and to
facilitate a negotiated settlement for self-government within Iraq by
organizing a democratically elected body to represent Kurdish interests.
Max van der Stoel, special
rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights, says that internal blockades
of food and emergency supplies to Kurdish populations in northern Iraq threaten
a disaster "on the scale of Bosnia or Somalia." Characterizing the
human rights situation in Iraq as "absurd," he points out that
"here we have one of the most oil-rich states of the world, and still tens
of thousands of Kurds are in danger of freezing to death." Related Links
Like many other Lebanese
novelists and writers, Maalouf is profoundly concerned with the meeting of and
conflict between East and West. Related Links
At approximately 12:00 noon, a
bomb in a van, planted by terrorists allegedly backed by Osama bin Laden,
explodes in the underground garage of the World Trace Center, North Tower. Six people are killed, and more than 1,000
injured. Millions of dollars' worth of
damage is sustained. Six Islamic
extremist conspirators are convicted of the crime in 1997 and '98, receiving
prison sentences of 240 years each.
Related Links
The U.S.-Israel Science and
Technology Commission aims to encourage and oversee cooperative scientific,
agricultural, and environmental research and projects. The 1990s sees a number of cooperative
efforts between the U.S. and Israel, in
areas including food industry regulation, cosmetics production standards,
intellectual property rights, and information technology. Related Links
Afghanistan's first national
museum housed an impressive record of Central Asian history dating back as far
as the sixth century B.C.E. Twice
slammed by rockets and recklessly looted, many of the finer artifacts are being
sold on the international art market.
Attempts have been made to secure the remaining collection, but many
pieces were too large to move, and deteriorated in the ruins. More than 70 percent of its collection has
been destroyed or stolen. With the fall
of the Taliban, efforts are under way to protect and conserve what
remains. Related Links
Iran's president, prime
minister, and Cabinet ministers do not have independent decision-making
power. They answer to the spiritual
leader and to a group of religious scholars appointed by the spiritual leader. A legislature, appointed by the people every
four years, makes laws in keeping with Islam.
A council made up of six lawyers and six clergy oversee this
legislature. Related Links
Ciller, a Western-educated
economist, professor, and leader of the True Path Party, serves three years
before leaving her position as prime minister in 1996. Related Links
The U.S. bombs Iraqi intelligence headquarters after
a report that the Iraqis have planned to assassinate former president George
Bush on his trip to Kuwait in April 1993.
Related Links
The agreement reached in Oslo
outlines an Israeli redeployment from parts of the occupied West Bank and Gaza
Strip and the establishment of a provisional Palestinian self-rule
government. The two sides agree to recognize
one another publicly. The U.S. hosts a ceremony at which the Declaration of
Principles, also called the Oslo Accords, is signed on September 13. Related Links
Omani women, who traditionally
gained status by having a large number of children, have one of the highest
birthrates in the world -- on average, Omani women will bear 7.7 children. To help women and the children to whom they
give birth become healthier, Oman provides Birth Spacing Services. Related Links
Because of its lack of fresh
water resources, Saudi Arabia develops a process to remove salt from sea water
(desalination) to serve the water needs of its people. Saudi Arabia currently produces more
desalinated water than any other country in the world. This water is used both for drinking water
and agricultural irrigation. In 1994,
the production capacity for desalinated water had reached 714,218,000 gallons
per day -- enough water to cover the needs of the cities on the eastern and
western coasts as well as some cities inland.
By 2000, the capital city of Riyadh would receive desalinated water from
the Gulf, 500 kilometers away. Related Links
Inflation drops from 75 percent
to 18 percent as the economy rebounds after the end of the civil war. Beirut's absence from the international
banking scene has led to the ascendance of Amman and Tel Aviv as Middle East
banking centers, but the Lebanese government instates financial and commercial
measures that will return Beirut to prominence in banking and tourism in the
1990s. Related Links
Concerned with the percentage
of male emirati, or UAE nationals, marrying foreign women, UAE president Sheikh
Zayed announces this program in which UAE men and UAE women can receive
long-term loans of up to $19,000 to assist with wedding expenses and the
purchase of a house. The loan is
interest-free and reduces by 20 percent with the birth of each child. Related Links
Supporters of the president, a
northerner, and those of the vice president, a southerner, clash. The president's troops win out, and he
retains control over the republic. Related Links
Osama bin Laden is of Saudi
Arabian origin, but his citizenship is revoked in reaction to his attempts to
overthrow the regime of Saudi Arabia.
Being in contact with bin Laden after 1994 is considered by the Saudi
government a hostile gesture, even an act of treason. Related Links
As a result of the Oslo peace
process, the Gaza-Jericho Agreement -- also known as the Cairo Accords --
includes an Israeli military withdrawal from about 60 percent of the Gaza Strip
(Jewish settlements and their environs excluded) and the West Bank town of
Jericho. The agreement envisages
further withdrawals from yet-to-be-agreed-on areas of the Occupied
Territories. A five-year period begins
in which a permanent resolution is to be negotiated on Jerusalem, settlements,
Palestinian refugees, and sovereignty.
Related Links
Following the signing of the
Declaration of Principles and the Cairo Agreement, Yasser Arafat enters Gaza
after 27 years living outside of Israel.
He had spent the past 12 years running the PLO from Tunis. Related Links
Since the 1950s, Fairuz has
drawn her songs from traditional Arabic music, operettas, and jazz. She achieved iconic status when she refused
to leave Beirut during the civil war.
Her Beirut concert in 1994, and her return to the Baalbeck Festival in
1998, symbolize a new beginning for postwar Lebanese culture. Related Links
Only the second such agreement
between Israel and one of its Arab neighbors, the peace treaty between Jordan
and Israel establishes a solid framework for cooperation in the political,
economic, and cultural fields. The
treaty is the formalization of secret arrangements between the two countries
that had been in place for many years.
Because Jordan is dependent on Iraq for oil, has a large Palestinian
Arab population hostile to Israel, and faces constant pressure from Syria,
Jordan's King Hussein had in the past been reluctant to reveal his more
moderate policies toward Israel. The
elements that had prevented open and peaceful relations between the former
enemies, however, were finally offset by the Gulf War and by the Oslo peace
process, which made it politically acceptable for an Arab entity to be in peace
negotiations with Israel. Related Links
The Atat¸rk Dam is one of 22
planned dams and 19 planned hydroelectric plants on the Euphrates and Tigris
Rivers. The overall project costs
exceed $34 billion and result in the displacement of largely Kurdish
populations. Related Links
Oman has less oil than other
Gulf states, and its reserves are running low.
Additionally, its deficit is climbing.
Sultan Qaboos is trying to diversify Oman's economy in part by reducing
its dependence on oil and encouraging its private sector to be more competitive
and efficient. Related Links
The U.S. imposes oil and trade sanctions on Iran for
allegedly sponsoring terrorism, seeking to acquire nuclear arms, and promoting
hostility to the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. Iran denies the charges.
Related Links
Membership in the World Trade
Organization (WTO) gives the UAE a voice in future commercial policymaking
decisions that could help boost its economy.
Related Links
A civil war between Kurds and
Turks has been going on for years. As a
result, many Kurds have fled Turkey for Iraq, where Kurdish guerrillas continue
to enter Turkey. The Turks' invasion,
called Operation Steel, backfires, as only 158 Kurdish rebels are killed in the
first week. Related Links
Sheikh Hamad deposes his father
with the support of the Qatari armed forces after accusing him of stealing from
oil and gas revenues. Born in Doha in
1950 and educated in Qatar and abroad, Sheikh Hamad's policies modernize Qatar
through the expansion of business and foreign relations, the use of natural
resources, and the loosening of restrictions on the press and media. Related Links
The shortage of fresh water is
a growing problem for Oman and other Gulf states. Many states get fresh water by desalination, the process of
purifying salt water. Oman, which has
built dams to collect rainwater that runs down mountains, continues to look for
other ways to collect more fresh water.
Related Links
In Washington, D.C., Yasser Arafat
and Yitzhak Rabin sign the Taba Agreement, known as Oslo II, to expand
Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza and to allow Palestinian
elections. In those elections, held on
January 20, 1996, Arafat wins roughly 85 percent of the votes in his bid to
head the Palestinian National Authority.
Related Links
Qatar becomes the first Gulf
nation to have economic relations with Israel, supplying Tel Aviv with natural
gas.
Prime minister Yitzhak Rabin is
assassinated by Yigal Amir, an Orthodox Jewish student opposed to Israeli
withdrawal from the occupied West Bank.
Shimon Peres succeeds Rabin as the new prime minister. Related Links
Israeli prime minister Shimon
Peres decides to push for a far-reaching peace deal with Syria, in contrast to
the earlier, more cautious negotiations conducted by his predecessor, the late
prime minister Yitzhak Rabin.
Israel's Supreme Court makes
this ruling after hearing a case brought by Alice Miller against the Israeli
air force. Although the Israeli Defense
Forces (IDF) had allowed women officers to train male soldiers, women
themselves had been excluded from combat prior to the ruling. By some estimations, 60 percent of the women
serving in the armed forces never get beyond desk work.
Wannous's career as a
playwright began in the early 1960s with several one-act plays which were
characterized by his fundamental theme:
the relationship between the individual and society and its authorities.
Horse racing is an ancient
Arabian sport. The Dubai World Cup is
considered to be in the same class as other world-renowned horse races, such as
the English Derby and Oaks Classics.
Dubai also hosts professional golf events -- golf is the fastest growing
sport in the UAE -- as well as prestigious motorcar rallies. Related Links
These laws allow secret
evidence to be used against immigrants and foreign visitors for purposes of
deportation. The law has been implemented
almost exclusively against Arabs and Arab Americans. Related Links
Hailed as a hero for his
involvement against the Soviets in the 1980s, the Islamic militia in power
offers Osama bin Laden support and safety within Afghan borders. From 1991 to 1996, prior to accepting the
Taliban's invitation, bin Laden had been in Sudan, from which he was expelled
in 1996 under pressure from the U.S.
and Saudi Arabia. Related Links
Emile Habibi dies in Haifa,
where he was born. A founder of the
Israeli Communist Party, Habibi served in the Knesset from 1953 to 1972. His 1974 novel Said the Pessoptimist
was widely acclaimed. Accepting
literary prizes from both the PLO and Israel was controversial but reflected
his belief in coexistence, also evident in the documentary Emile Habibi -- I
Stayed in Haifa. Related Links
Turkey's first Islamist prime
minister, Necmettin Erbakan, leader of Turkey's Welfare Party (Refah), is
forced to step down in 1997, and the party itself outlawed, after being judged
a threat to Turkey's secular constitution.
In 2002 he is sentenced to more than two years in prison for embezzling
party political funds. Related Links
Under the rule of the Taliban
in Afghanistan, women are banished from the workforce, forbidden an education,
and prohibited to leave their homes unless a close male relative escorts
them. In public, they must wear special
dress (burqa) that completely covers the body and leaves only a small
mesh-covered opening through which they can see. Windows of women's houses visible to the public must be painted
black. Religious minorities and secular
individuals also suffer intolerance under the Taliban regime. Related Links
Oman's constitution, called the
Basic Law, ensures press freedoms, tolerance for all religious faiths, and
equality for everyone, regardless of race, creed, or sex. It also calls for a court system that would
interpret the law. Oman and Qatar are
the only Gulf states in which women can vote.
The Al-Jazeera network
broadcasts Arab-related news and current-affairs programming. It is the first Arab TV news outlet that is
not state-censored. Known as "Arab
CNN" to some, Al-Jazeera becomes well known in the West when it airs a
videotape of Osama bin Laden responding to U.S. air strikes against Afghanistan and celebrating the September 11
attacks. Related Links
Archaeologists find the ruins
of the Pharos lighthouse, which was toppled in the 1300s after a series of
earthquakes, submerged off Alexandria, Egypt.
Dating to about 285 B.C.E., the lighthouse stood on the island of
Pharos. It was the tallest building on
Earth at the time, and its light, reflected off a mirror, was visible from more
than 35 miles away.
Saddam Hussein's elder son,
Uday, is seriously wounded in an assassination attempt against the president in
Baghdad's al-Mansur district.
The Palme d'Or is the grand
prize at the Cannes Film Festival. When
Taste of Cherry is named best film, Kiarostami becomes the first Iranian
director ever to receive the prestigious award. Related Links
Mohammed Khatami campaigns for
president for just two weeks on a platform emphasizing return to the rule of
law and restoration of civil society.
Almost immediately, police stop hassling women for improper dress, and
bolder women start wearing their head scarves further back on the head, showing
more of their hair. Newspapers report
freely about the government. Related Links
After the Iraqi national soccer
team suffers its second loss in World Cup qualifying matches, Uday Hussein,
eldest son of President Saddam Hussein and head of the Iraqi soccer federation,
reportedly has the team jailed and tortured.
Al-Jawahri, along with Maruf
al-Rusafi and Jamil Sidqi al-Zahawi, were among the Arab world's most prominent
poets during the 1920s and 1930s.
Al-Jawahri became closely affiliated with the Communists in the 1940s,
expressing strong anti-colonialist sentiment in his poetry.
In the year following the implementation
of the ban, 2,000 women are expelled from universities for choosing to wear
head scarves. Related Links
Hamam, or Turkish
Bath, a fictional film about two men who fall in love in a Turkish bath, is
selected by an independent film board as Turkey's nomination for the Academy
Awards. The selection is overruled by
the culture ministry, however, and another film, Eskiya, or Bandit,
is put forward.
Five political dissidents and
noted intellectuals are killed.
President Khatami orders an investigation of the murders. That the investigation takes place at all
proves to be one of Khatami's biggest successes. The Ministry of Intelligence and Security determines that its own
members committed the murders. Related Links
A non-governmental
organization, al-Halaqa seeks to bring the republic's contemporary art movement
to international attention.
Lake Kinneret contains most of
Israel's water supply. As a desert
region, Israel and the rest of the Middle East engage in ongoing negotiations
about water supplies, water partnerships, and water technologies.
Crop and livestock losses
threaten more than three million Afghans with starvation. A way of life is also in jeopardy: Eighty-five percent of the population of
Afghanistan depends directly on agriculture for employment, but most households
will soon be left without breeding stock or work animals. The current food shortage is compounded by
two decades of civil instability. Related Links
Turkey's parliament passes
legislation that states that husbands can be indicted for domestic abuse even
if their wives refuse to press charges.
Later in the year, a constitutional court rules that adultery is no
longer a crime for women. Though
adultery has long been legal for men, women previously faced up to three years
in prison if found guilty.
Two major quakes measuring 6.1
and 6.9 on the Richter scale originate from nearly the same site in the
northeast provinces of Takhar and Badakshan.
Landslides level homes and villages, trapping many under rubble and
leaving thousands of terrified survivors clinging to exposed
mountainsides. An estimated 10,000
people are killed and 45,000 left homeless.
Related Links
The Israeli-Palestinian version
of Sesame Street features an Israeli and a Palestinian muppet who
together teach tolerance (in addition to letters and counting). Segments produced since the September 2000
outbreak of violence in the Palestinian territories and Israel are called Sesame
Stories, which tell stories from each culture separately in an attempt to
humanize each side in the conflict.
One of the most prominent
figures in the Arab literary world, the Syrian writer Nizar Qabbani, dies at
his home in London; he is 75. He became popular in the 1950s and later
became known throughout the Arab world for his love poetry. Qabbani adopted a more political role when
he wrote a volume of poetry lamenting what he saw as the bitter defeat of the
Arab states in 1967, in the Six-Day War with Israel.
The Qatar Amateur Athletic
Federation (QAAF) hosts the Qatar International Athletic Grand Prix II at
Khalifa Stadium. At the games, Qatar
becomes the first Gulf country to allow women to compete in an athletic
tournament. In the 1990s, Qatar had
become a more frequent stopping point for international athletics, twice as the
host of some qualifying rounds for the 1994 and 1998 soccer World Cup. Related Links
In handing over the suspects
accused of the 1988 Pan Am bombing, Qaddafi submits to pressure from the United
Nations, Nelson Mandela, and the Arab League. Related Links
After holding several official
posts, including head of the political committee of the Palestinian Authority,
Hanan Ashrawi leaves the government to protest the political corruption she
observed in Yasser Arafat's handling of peace talks. A Christian educated at the American University in Beirut and the
University of Virginia, she first enters the political scene in 1988, advancing
an image of Palestinians as victims of oppression and becoming one of the first
Palestinian figures to transcend the media's popular "terrorist"
stereotype. An activist as well as an
academic, in 1999 Ashrawi founds MIFTAH, a group dedicated to promoting the
Palestinian cause and ending Israeli occupation by focusing on humanitarian
rather than ideological or historical arguments. She continues to serve as the organization's secretary general
and as a Palestinian legislator. Related Links
Four men are tried on charges
related to the simultaneous bombings in Africa, which killed 224 people and
wounded thousands. Charges include
conspiring in the bombing and other acts of terrorism as part of Osama bin
Laden's international organization, al-Qaeda.
All four are convicted in May 2001 and sentenced to life in prison
without parole on October 18, 2001. Related Links
A U.S. wrestler wins first place in the World
Championships held in Iran. When the
U.S. national anthem is played,
Iranians present at the event stand in respect for the first time in nearly 20
years. Related Links
In 1998 two new U.S.-funded
radio services begin transmitting in Iran and Iraq. Also available via the Internet, the shortwave broadcasts, in
Persian and Arabic respectively, are produced by Radio Free Europe-Radio
Liberty (RFE/RL), the U.S.
government-funded surrogate broadcaster based in Prague. Both Iran and Iraq criticize the radio
broadcasts as interference in their internal affairs. Related Links
After a peace summit held by
U.S. president Bill Clinton, Israeli
prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser
Arafat sign an agreement calling for, among other things, the Israeli military
to pull back from portions of the West Bank and the Palestinian Authority to
combat terrorist organizations more effectively. Related Links
In addition to newspapers being
shut down, several writers and publishers are jailed as a result of the
violations. In the late 1990s, though
liberals under President Khatami control the executive branch of government,
religious conservatives control the legislative and judicial branches. Related Links
Directed by Majid Majidi, this
genial crowd-pleaser, about a poor brother and sister temporarily obliged to
share the same pair of shoes, walked away with almost every award offered at
the 1997 Montreal World Film Festival, including the grand prize, the critics'
prize, the people's prize, and the ecumenical jury prize. It did not, however, take home the Oscar. Related Links
Lt. Dr. Elina Weismann
becomes the first woman officer in the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) to serve in
a combat unit, as a battalion physician in southern Lebanon. At the same time, the IDF announces other
changes in women's service, from requirements for apparel to participation in
elite jumpmasters training. The IDF
also announces plans to conduct coeducational basic training for soldiers in
identical positions. Related Links
Israeli prime minister Benjamin
Netanyahu had lost support from both hard-line conservatives in his government
and opposition Labor Party members.
Hard-liners were angry with Netanyahu for agreeing to turn over
additional land to Palestinians in the October 1998 Wye River accords. Opposition members turned against Netanyahu
when he suspended those same accords a few weeks later, citing security
concerns. Increasing violence also may
have also been a factor in the Knesset's decision. Palestinian militants are suspected of opening fire on a van of
Jewish settlers in the West Bank city of Hebron earlier in the week, wounding
two Israeli women. The Israeli army
responds by imposing a curfew on Palestinians in the area who live under
Israeli control. The violence, coupled
with an overall lack of confidence in the government's ability to secure true
peace, contribute to a growing lack of hope and a general change from optimism
to pessimism.
During his 46-year reign, King
Hussein worked hard to normalize relationships between Israel and the Arab
states. His death leaves his country
still struggling for economic and social survival, as well as for regional
peace. His son and successor, King
Abdullah, faces the task of maintaining the country's stability while
accommodating growing calls for political reform. Related Links
Qatar is the first Gulf country
to allow women to vote in municipal elections following a ruling by Sheikh
Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani in 1998. Six
of the 227 candidates for the central municipal council are women. More than 40 percent of the voters are
women, although none of the six women candidates wins. Related Links
These figures represent an
increase of nearly 50 percent since December 1998. There are four Internet service providers in Egypt.
These figures represent a rapid
increase in subscribers of 140 percent since December 1998.
Qatar's growth in the
personal-computer market is ranked third behind that of China and Egypt. Among a population of 650,000, there are
27,500 Internet users and 11,000 online subscribers.
Participants in the three-day
conference Technosphere '99 come from 20 Arab countries. They resolve to expand technological and
vocational education for women in the Arab world.
Ehud Barak, widely regarded as
more amenable to peace negotiations with the Palestinians than the incumbent,
Likud prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, pledges he will be a prime minister
"for all Israelis." He defeats Netanyahu in a divisive campaign. Related Links
Thievery is identified as a
major threat to Iraq's rich archaeological history. Since the Gulf War, numerous sites that hold clues to some of the
earliest and greatest civilizations in the world (Assyria, Babylonia, Sumer)
and to the origins of writing and many religious traditions have been
looted. The men who were executed
attempted to sell pieces of the statue's head to wealthy Western collectors.
Upon his death, King Hassan II
is succeeded by his son, King Mohammed VI.
King Hassan ruled Morocco for 38 years. Related Links
The August earthquake,
registering 7.8 on the Richter scale, is centered near the city of Izmit, in
densely populated western Turkey. In
addition to the 18,000 deaths, another 27,000 people are injured. Damage extends to 340,000 houses and
businesses. The quake is believed to
have pushed Anatolia four feet closer to Europe. On November 12, another 760 are killed and 5,000 injured when a
second large earthquake, measuring 7.2, hits Duzce. The total damage for the two quakes is estimated at between $10
billion and $25 billion. Related Links
Blind since childhood,
al-Baradouni advocated democracy and women's rights through his poetry, which
was translated into several foreign languages.
He also wrote books on politics, literature, and folklore. Al-Baradouni was jailed several times for
his criticism of both religious extremists and military insurgents.
At Sharm el-Sheikh in Egypt,
Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat sign an
agreement restating the commitment of both sides to full implementation of all
agreements reached since the first Oslo Agreement of September 1993. They pledge to resolve the outstanding
issues of the interim status, in particular those set out in the 1998 Wye River
Memorandum, in order to accelerate completion of the interim period toward
initiation of negotiations on permanent status. Related Links
Marcel Khalife is a Christian Lebanese composer, most famous
in the Arab world for the nationalist songs he composed during the 15-year
Lebanese civil war. Religious
authorities accused Khalife of including Koranic verses in a song -- based on a
poem by Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish -- about the plight of the
Palestinians. His trial is seen as a
test case for freedom of expression in a country perceived as one of the most
liberal in the Arab world. Similar
trials in Egypt convict numerous authors and publishers. Related Links
Expressing the views of the
working majority in everyday language, al-Khaledi reached a wide audience in
Yemen and abroad, though he gained little attention from intellectuals and the
official media. He is best remembered
for his mastery of "riposte," quick wit demonstrated in written
exchanges with other poets.
Internet and telecommunications
companies thrive in a nation known for its vigorous cell-phone use.
Military service is compulsory
at age 18 for most Israelis; exceptions
are made for the ultra-Orthodox. Men
serve for three years and women for two, with reserve service for men lasting
until age 51 and for single women until age 24. Related Links
The new law signed into law by
Egyptian president Mubarak essentially gives women the same divorce rights as
men. Women no longer need to show proof
of physical abuse or adultery, for example, to end a marriage. Egypt becomes only the second country in the
Arab world, after Tunisia, to grant women these rights. Related Links
Laila al-Othman's use of the
word "lustful" to describe sea waves in her book The Departure
is interpreted by authorities as having a sexual connotation. She claims this was unintended. Alia Shuaib, a professor at Kuwait
University, is found guilty of "publishing opinions that ridicule
religion" in a book she published in 1993, Spiders Bemoan a Wound. Each receives a suspended two-month
sentence. Related Links
Ofra Haza's sound, a mix of
traditional songs and dance beats, made her an international star. She was nominated for a Grammy Award in the
World Beat category in 1992 and even performed at the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize
ceremony in Oslo at the request of Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin. Shimon Peres and Ehud Barak deliver eulogies
at Haza's funeral. Related Links
Similarly, Media City, a hub
for global media companies, opens in 2001, also in Dubai.
The West Bank land handed over
in a transfer from Israeli to Palestinian control amounts to 6.1 percent of the
total Occupied Territories. This
completes the transfer agreement made at Wye River in 1998. Related Links
Despite the Israeli withdrawal
from Lebanon, Hezbollah continues cross-border attacks on Israel. Related Links
A prominent Egyptian
sociologist and human rights activist, Dr.
Ibrahim had advocated voter registration and election monitoring and
reported on attacks on Egypt's Coptic Christian community. Convicted of the charges of fraud, bribery,
and spreading false information, he is sentenced to a seven-year prison term,
but is later granted a new trial. On
July 29, 2002, he will be convicted for a second time and given another seven-year
sentence. Many human rights watch
groups contend the charges against Ibrahim are politically motivated and that
his conviction is designed to "muzzle civil society in Egypt." Related Links
Faegheh Atashin, popularly
known as Googoosh, is an Iranian pop star and icon of female freedom and
sexuality. She and other female solo
artists were banned from singing in Iran by the Ayatollah Khomeini.
After being turned away by
officials from registration centers, which opened in February to update the
all-male voters lists, a number of women file a complaint against the interior
minister, al-Shaikh Mohammad Khaled al-Sabah.
This challenge to the legitimacy of Kuwait's electoral law, which denies
women the right to vote, is heard by the Constitutional Court in June and is
rejected. Related Links
A peace summit hosted at Camp
David by U.S. president Bill Clinton
ends after two weeks, with the parties unable to come up with a formula to
reconcile divisive issues concerning competing Israeli and Palestinian claims
to Jerusalem, security, borders, and refugees.
At the summit, Barak offers far-reaching compromises to resolve the
disputes, while Arafat offers nothing.
President Clinton publicly blames Arafat for the failure. Barak and Arafat, however, promise to
continue to work toward a permanent peace agreement. Related Links
Before the beginning of the
November planting season, Mullah Muhammad Omar, the Taliban's supreme leader,
bans poppy growing in Afghanistan. He
augments the ban with a religious edict declaring the crop to be contrary to
the tenets of Islam. According to the
United Nations, in 2000 Afghanistan produced nearly 4,000 tons of opium, about
75 percent of the world's supply. Related Links
Should the recently discovered reserves of natural
gas off of Israel's coast prove large, tapping them could reduce the country's
immense dependence on foreign suppliers of energy, as could Israeli research
into solar and wind power. Currently,
for political reasons, Israel's energy demand is met by suppliers outside of
the Arab world.
Turkish weightlifters compete
exceptionally well in international competitions. Halil Mutlu, nicknamed "Little Dynamo" because of his
small stature (123 pounds), wins the gold medal in the Sydney Olympics, lifting
more than 300 pounds. His mentor, Naim
Suleymanoglu, a.k.a. "Pocket
Hercules," has also won a gold medal in Olympic competition.
The advisory council, or Majlis
al-Shura, has no formal powers but is consulted by Oman's ruler, Sultan Qaboos,
on new laws and public policy.
Ariel Sharon, leader of
Israel's right-wing opposition party, Likud, visits the area around the al-Aqsa
mosque in Jerusalem accompanied by 1,000 armed policemen and riot forces. A large police presence at a site sacred to
Muslims, together with the timing of the visit -- on the heels of failed talks
to end Israeli occupation peacefully -- strike a nerve with many
Palestinians. Clashes ensue between
Palestinian rioters and Israeli soldiers.
The Islamic resistance movement Hamas calls on Palestinians to storm
Israeli army outposts in the Occupied Territories. This marks the beginning of the second intifada, or "shaking
off," known as the al-Aqsa intifada.
Violence spreads from Gaza, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem to
northern Israeli towns such as Nazareth and Umm al-Fahem. By mid-December, more than 300 are dead,
including 13 Israeli Arabs. Related Links
Seventeen American sailors are
killed in an explosion on the USS Cole, a U.S. Navy guided missile destroyer docked in the Yemeni port of
Aden. The Cole was moored for
refueling when a rubber boat blew up alongside it. It is the deadliest attack on the U.S. military since the 1996 bombing of a U.S. Air Force barracks in Saudi Arabia that
killed 19. Related Links
Leah Rabin, a
homemaker-turned-peace campaigner, was feted abroad as an advocate of
Israeli-Arab coexistence but was shunned by some in Israel as a divisive
figure. She counted political leaders,
including U.S. president Bill Clinton
and Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, among her close friends, and after her
husband's assassination, she crisscrossed the world to carry the torch for his
peace policies. Mrs. Rabin's harshest critics were the supporters
of hard-line leader Benjamin Netanyahu, whom she accused of fanning the hatred
that led to her husband's murder at a Tel Aviv peace rally in 1995. Netanyahu had opposed the land-for-security
agreements Yitzhak Rabin signed with the Palestinians. Related Links
With his governing coalition on
the verge of collapse, Prime Minister Barak submits his resignation to Israeli
president Moshe Katsav. The next
election, scheduled to take place within 60 days, is to serve as a vote of
confidence or no-confidence on Barak and his policies. Related Links
Iran's high adult literacy rate
represents a vast improvement since the start of the 1979 revolution, when the
figure was only 48 percent. Iran now
has more than 30 free public universities, 15 of them located in Tehran.
The outbreak of the second
Palestinian intifada in September 2000, the collapse of Ehud Barak's government
in December, and the worldwide slowdown in the high-tech industry, lead some
experts to suggest that Israel's surging economy will soften. Part of the economic boom in the 1990s has
been attributed to the influx of scientific and economic professionals who
emigrated from the former Soviet Union at the end of the 1980s. Related Links
The project promises to build
two pipelines to transport Egyptian natural gas to Middle East partners and to
European markets.
Abdel Basset Ali Mohmed
al-Megrahi is found guilty of murder and is sentenced to life in a Glasgow,
Scotland, prison. A second man charged in
the bombing, Al Amin Khalifa Fhimah, is found not guilty of murder and
freed. The trial was held in a
Netherlands courtroom under Scottish law.
Related Links
Ariel Sharon wins election to
the office of prime minister with the largest vote margin ever in Israeli
politics. The Likud Party leader begins
efforts to unite the country by attracting members of the defeated Labor Party
to his administration. The unity
government that he forms is the largest in Israel's history and is split into a
broad spectrum of left, right, center, and religious parties. Related Links
Led by Mullah Omar, the Taliban
evokes international outrage when it smashes ancient cultural icons, including
two giant fifth-century Buddha statues in Bamiyan; one was the tallest standing Buddha in the world. Related Links
The International Court of
Justice settles a five-year-old dispute between neighboring countries Bahrain
and Qatar over territorial rights to the Hawar Islands and adjoining
natural-gas fields in the Gulf of Bahrain.
The Economic and Social Commission
for Western Asia (ESCWA) convenes a Thematic Round Table in Beirut to discuss
regional concerns about sustainable development, fresh water supplies, land
use, poverty, standards of living, and technology. The commission representatives prepare for the "Rio +
10" World Summit on Sustainable Development.
The Israeli company Merhav
announces that it has sold its 20 percent share in the Middle East Oil Refinery
Ltd. (MIDOR) to the National Bank of
Egypt, ending what had been the largest Arab-Israeli joint commercial venture
to date.
Believed to have been on course
for the U.S. Capitol, a fourth jet
crashes into an open field in western Pennsylvania. About 3,000 people die in the events, which result in the
complete destruction of the World Trade Center Twin Towers and severe damage to
the Pentagon building. The U.S. labels the incidents terrorist actions and
suspects Muslim extremists are responsible.
The U.S. launches attacks in
Afghanistan, eventually ousting the ruling Muslim fundamentalist regime known
as the Taliban. The Taliban and its
leader, Mullah Omar, are thought to sponsor the terrorist network al-Qaeda and
its leader, Osama bin Laden. Related Links
Qatar's seat on the council is
one of four reserved for Asian member countries.
Dream TV is launched with two
channels: Dream 1 targets youth
viewers, while Dream 2 shows movies and variety programming. A third channel, Dream 3, is set to launch
at a later date.
The meetings produce the Doha
Development Agenda, which ensures that industrialized nations aid developing
nations by providing markets for their agricultural and manufactured
goods. Violent anti-globalization
demonstrations that occurred at the 1999 Seattle meeting are not repeated in
Doha, but threats are made against Qatar for inviting Israel to
participate. Related Links
In previous weeks, the first
major incursion of U.S. ground troops
had landed near Kandahar, the last major city under Taliban control, to support
Afghans fighting Taliban and al-Qaeda forces.
A series of U.S. air strikes
opens the way for the anti-Taliban forces to take control of the city. Related Links
Foreign migrants continue to
account for some 65 percent of the Saudi work force, raising fears that
unemployed youth could be increasingly drawn to radical Islamist groups. Related Links
About 98 percent of all females
eligible for school attend. In fact, 60
percent of the student body of the UAE University in al-Ain are women. Graduates make up a large percentage of
teachers, health service professionals, and government employees. The UAE's first woman pilot recently
graduated from its aviation college.
Israel's armed forces deal with
internal dissent as some Israeli soldiers question the government's 35-year
policy of occupation of these territories and the harsh measures adopted by the
military against civilian populations there.
There remains, however, a substantially high rate of volunteer service
among Israeli soldiers in the Occupied Territories. In March, women soldiers are deployed for the first time in
Israeli settlements in the West Bank.
Related Links
In his first State of the Union
address, President Bush warns that the proliferation of long-range missiles,
known to be under development in these countries, is as great a danger to the
U.S. as terrorism. Related Links
The Saudi government fails to
provide a clear explanation for the censorship. Internet users, a fast-growing group that numbered 112,500 in
April 1999, are largely undeterred, and can still obtain unauthorized Internet
access through neighbors Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates. Related Links
The Israeli government responds
to an increase in suicide bombings, including an attack on Jews celebrating
Passover. Israel defends its raids,
saying they are designed to destroy the Palestinian terrorist
infrastructure. The Palestinians argue
that Israel's goal is to destroy the Palestinian Authority and its economic and
civilian infrastructure. Related Links
The lack of an effective
control program has allowed hundreds of millions of locusts to threaten nearly
70 percent of the crops in parts of northern Afghanistan, the country's most
productive agricultural area. Several
million rural households are potentially affected by the swarm. Insecticides and traditional trench traps
are being used to combat the insects.
Related Links
The offer comes with
conditions: Forty percent is to be paid
when United Nations sanctions are lifted from Libya; another 40 percent is to be paid when U.S. sanctions are lifted; and the remaining 20 percent is to be paid
when Libya is taken off the U.S. list
of states sponsoring terrorism. Libya's
government quickly denies having made the offer, saying it might have come from
an unauthorized source. Some of the
victims' families say they would refuse it even if it were official. Related Links
The loya jirga, a centuries-old
political institution made up of representatives of Afghan society, convenes in
Kabul to restore the Afghan government.
For the first time in Afghan history, women are allowed to participate. It is decided that free and fair elections
will be held within two years. Related Links
Soccer is Turkey's most popular
sport, perhaps reflected in the government's decision to mint commemorative
coins celebrating the national team's third-place overall finish in the 2002
World Cup. Related Links